Big Brother Africa is a television program produced by Endemol. The show initially involved 12 countries within Africa (Angola, Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia & Zimbabwe) with two countries (Ethiopia and Mozambique) being added in season 4. Each country produces a contestant living in an isolated house while trying to avoid being evicted by viewers and ultimately winning a large cash prize at the end of the show.
Big Brother Africa 1
- Abby
- Alex
- Bayo
- Bruna
- Cherise
- Gaetano
- Mwisho
In 2010 Mwisho returned as a contestant in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars. He came in 4th place lasting all 91 days; he spent a total of 197 days in the Big Brother house combinded.
Currently Mwisho has the record for the most days spent in the Big Brother Africa house with 197.
- Sammi
In 2010 Sammi competed in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars and lasted 33 days and was forced to leave due to medical issues. Sammi has spent a total of 103 days in the Big Brother House 70 days for Big Brother Africa season 1 and 33 days for Big Brother Africa 5: All Stars.
- Stefan
- Tapuwa
- Warona
- Zein
[edit] Nominations table
[edit] Nomination notes
- ^1 During the second round of nominations Gaetano was taking part in the Big brother swap so he was not in the house thus he was given an exemption.
[edit] Swap with the Big Brother house in the United Kingdom
Big Brother Africa contestant Gaetano Kagwa swapped places with Big Brother UK contestant Cameron Stout.[2] Gaetano (known as Gae), a Ugandan law student was chosen to join UK Big Brother after passing a cocktail-making challenge. He caused upset in the Big Brother UK house when he called contestant Tania a "piggy", causing her to walk off in tears and threaten to leave the UK house for good.[edit] Facts
Big Brother Africa is being shown in America on the Africa Channel. It airs from Nov.2008 till March 2009. It is the 1st non-American Big Brother shown in America. Big Brother Africa 1 was the only Big Brother from the African series to use its specific eye logo design with the series using a completely different design from series 2 onwards.Big Brother Africa 2
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Big Brother Africa 2 was the second series of the Big Brother Africa reality television show produced by Endemol. The series began airing on August 5, 2007. As with the previous series, the show involved 12 countries within Africa (Angola, Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia & Zimbabwe) each producing a contestant living in an isolated house in Johanneburg, South Africa, while trying to avoid being evicted by viewers and ultimately winning a large cash prize at the end of the show. The show was filmed in a house at Sasani Studios in Lyndhurst, JohannesburgHousemates
[edit] Bertha
Bertha Zakeyo[1] (born June 2, 1979) is a lawyer from Harare, Zimbabwe.[2] She was the sixth housemate to be evicted from the show, after receiving 12 of 13 votes on day 63.[edit] Code
Code Sangala[3] (born June 2, 1976) is a radio DJ and musician from Blantyre, Malawi.[4] He became the eighth housemate to be evicted with 10 of the 13 votes on Day 77.In 2010 Code competed in Big Brother Africa 5: All Stars and lasted 77 days. He has spent a combined 144 days in the Big Brother house.
[edit] Jeff
Jeff Anthony Omondi Kariaga[5] (born November 21, 1983) is an entrepreneur from Kisumu, Kenya.[6] He became the second person to be evicted after receiving 7 of 13 votes on Day 28.[edit] Justice
Justice Motlhabani (born January 17, 1984) is in his final year of a bachelor’s degree in Public Relations and Print Journalism at the University of Botswana. He hails from Serowe, Botswana.[7] Justice was the first person to be evicted from the Big Brother Africa house after receiving 7 of 13 votes. He is a proponent of argumentation, rhetoric and debate [8][edit] Kwaku
Kwaku Asamoah Tutu[9] (born 1 June 1977) is from Kumawu, Ghana.[10] He was the seventh evictee from the house with 11 out of the 13 votes on Day 70. He was in a relationship with Meryle then with Bertha.[edit] Lerato
Lerato Sengadi[11] (born October 31, 1982) is an events coordinator from Soweto, South Africa.[12] She was the fifth evictee of the series, after receiving 8 of 13 votes on day 56.In 2010 Lerato competed in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars and lasted to the final for 91 days. He has spent a combined 147 days in the Big Brother house.
[edit] Maureen
Maureen Namatovu[13] (born September 5, 1979) is a fashion designer from Entebbe, Uganda.[14][edit] Maxwell
Maxwell Chongu[15] (born June 27, 1981) is a call centre operator from Lusaka, Zambia.[16] Maxwell became the fourth housemate to be evicted with 12 of the 13 votes on Day 42.[edit] Meryl
Meryl Shikwambane[17] (born March 8, 1986) is a receptionist from Namibia.[18] She was the third evictee of the series, after receiving 8 of 13 votes on day 35.In 2010 Meryl competed in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars and lasted 77 days. She has spent a combinded 108 days in the Big Brother house.
[edit] Ofunneka
Ofunneka Malokwu[19] (born August 9, 1977) is a personal assistant from Jos, Nigeria.[20] She celebrated her 30th birthday whilst in the Big Brother house.[21] She was the runner-up in the series.[edit] Richard
Richard Dyle Bezuidenhout[19] (born August 10, 1982) is a student from Ilala, Tanzania.[22] He was the winner of Big Brother Africa 2.[edit] Tatiana
Tatiana Durão (born March 31, 1981) is an actress and model from Luanda, Angola.[23] She was the 10th person to be evicted from the big brother house. She made the final on day 98.In 2010 Tatiana competed in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars and lasted 84 days. She has spent a combined 182 days in the Big Brother house.
[edit] Nominations
Each week housmates nominate two other housemates for eviction in the Diary Room and must give justified and clear reasons.[24] The Head of House may be nominated for eviction as well. After the nominees are revealed to the House, the current Head of House can save a nominee for eviction including themselves if they are nominated and replace the saved nominee with another nominee. While this is revealed to the viewers, the House does not know of the decision until eviction night Sunday.[25][edit] Head of House
The Head of House (or HOH) is a position in the house that gives one housemate each week special privileges over the other Housemates. It is a power similar to both the Head of Household and the Power of Veto used in the American version of Big Brother. During nominations the Head of House can be nominated for eviction by their fellow housemates. Then the Head of House can chose to save a nominee or save themselves from eviction and nominate a new housemate for eviction. While the decision is released to the public, the House will not know of the decision until Sunday, eviction night.[25][edit] Nominations Table
A record of the nominations cast, stored in a nominations table, shows how each Housemate nominated other Housemates throughout his or her time in the house. The Head of House can chose to save a nominated Housemate each week and nominate another Housemate to face the public vote. Twists to the normal nominations process are noted, such as immunity from nomination and eviction (referred to as "exempt").Nomination notes
- ^1 On Day 2, Housemates were asked to name 2 others that they would nominate if it were a regular Monday. These nominations did not count and no one was put up for the public vote.
^3 As Head of House, Meryl chose to remove Bertha from the nominees and replace her with Jeff.[26]
- ^4 As Head of House, Bertha chose to remove Meryl from the nominees and replace her with Maureen.
- ^5 As Head of House, Maxwell chose to remove Ofunneka from the nominees and replace her with Richard.[28]
- ^6 As Head of House, Lerato chose to remove herself from the nominees and replace her with Tatiana.
- ^7 In Week 7, Big Brother reversed the nomination process by putting up the Housemates with the least nominations. As Head of House, Tatiana chose to remove herself from the nominees and replace her with Lerato. There will be a fake eviction on Sunday, the two fake evicted Housemates will have full access to the happenings in the House. Due to the fake eviction there will be no public voting in Week 7.[29]
- ^8 As Head of House, Maureen chose to keep the nominations the same.[30] Kwaku and Ofunneka were exempt from being nominated during Week 8.[31]
- ^9 As Head of House, Richard chose to keep the nominations the same.
- ^10 Code, the Head of House, chose to save himself and nominate Tatiana in his place.
- ^11 As Head of House, Ofunneka chose to keep the nominations the same.
- ^12 As Head of House, Tatiana chose to keep the nominations the same.
[edit] Rules and Regulations
Of contention is also the continued enforcing and later breaking of regulations, such as the imposition of a uniform that was later withdrawn, and subsequent bans against smoking and excessive alcohol consumption that were also later withdrawn with the provision of a shopping list service where the housemates could order whatever they wanted.[edit] Product Placement
The continued interruption of the live broadcast to advertise the show's sponsors has also been questioned.[edit] Nomination Procedure
The change of the nomination procedure to involve a veto by the head of house has also been questioned, especially since the veto could be abused for personal reasons.[edit] Controversy/Criticism
Controversy came up after second runner-up Ofunneka was sexually assaulted by Richard when all the housemates were drunk. The producers of the show deny this, stating it was with Ofunneka's consent, but fellow housemate Maureen screamed for Big Brother's help after she tried to get Richard off Ofunneka. Richard was taken into the diary room while paramedics came in to help the girls. No further comment has been made about the issue, especially as Ofunneka had passed out and remembered nothing of what happened.[32] (In the Australian version of the show, the male housemates who sexually assaulted a female housemate were evicted).[33]Newly-wed Richard carried out an affair with Angolan model Tatiana during their stay in the house. This angered Richard's Canadian wife, who threatened him with divorce.[34] Another housemate, Malawian radio DJ Code, managed to seduce all his female housemates. Unknown to him, his Dutch girlfriend was pregnant with his child, and surprised him by showing up at his eviction. Richard and Code were eventually forgiven by their respective partners.[35]
Producers were unable to deal with other issues which included bullying by South African Lerato Sengadi. Indecent sexual acts by Namibian housemate Meryl and Ghanian Kweku were another talking point, although Meryl denies the couple had sex.[36] The show has been the subject of much criticism, especially from the fact that most of the items in the house are not "African" and therefore it is not really "Big Brother Africa", but essentially just a Big Brother-style show with African contestants.[37]
At the end of its run, Big Brother Africa 2 was criticized for not showing any positive values to young people all over the continent.
Big Brother Africa 3
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Big Brother Africa 3 is the third series of the Big Brother Africa reality television show produced by Endemol. The series began airing on August 24, 2008. As with the previous series, the show involves 12 countries within Africa (Angola, Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia & Zimbabwe) each producing a contestant living in an isolated house in Johanneburg, South Africa, while trying to avoid being evicted by viewers and ultimately winning a large cash prize at the end of the show. The show is filmed in a house at Sasani Studios in Lyndhurst, Johannesburg. This season marks the closest vote in the history of the Big Brother series in Africa.Housemates
[edit] Hazel
Hazel Warren is the 25 year old representative from Malawi. Hazel finished in second place on the 23rd of November 2008 (Day 91) after a close vote result between her and Ricco in which she received 38.60% of the vote to Riccos 38.80%. Early on in her stay Hazel became known as the house cook among her housemates even though according to a few of her housemates she had only mediocer cooking skills. Throughout her stay in the house Hazel became close with South African housemate Thami. She managed to avoid being nominated early on in the series(with exception of the fourth round of nominations) but towards the end of her stay in the Big brother house she was nominated three times in a row, one of which she was up against Thami. Following Thamis eviction Hazel found herself out numbered three to one and was nominated against Tawana in the final eviction of the season, to both her and Tawanas surprise Hazel survived.[edit] Latoya
Latoya Lyakurwa is the 21 year old from Tanzania where she works as a secretary. She became the first evictee of Big brother Africa 3 on the 21st of September 2008 (Day 28). Latoya's stay in the Big Brother house was highlighted by her alternating of two male companions. She shared a bed with Ricco at night but was constantly seen attaching herself to Morris during the day. This led several housemates to remark how Latoya was "playing" both of them. Latoya stated several times ,during a private conversation with Munya and while in the rubbish dump for a week with Tawana, that she did not care about how the guys were feeling as she was just having fun.[edit] Lucille
Lucille Naobes is the 21 year old representative from Namibia. She became the second evictee of the show on the 28th of September 2008 (Day 35). Lucille was not initially nominated by the housemates for eviction, but ended up being placed for nomination by Takondwa who had been nominated but had Head of House privileges for that week, which meant he could replace himself with any of the housemate. The reason Takondwa gave was that he felt Lucille was the least likely housemate to get voted out by the viewers. Lucille stated in the post-eviction interview that she thought Takondwa was still suspecting her of stealing his cigarettes and that is the real reason he replaced himself with her. A highlight of the eviction was that Nigerian housemate Uti had a violent outburst when he learned that Lucille was to be evicted.[edit] Mimi
Wihelmina (Mimi) Abu-Andani is the 27 year old representative from Ghana. She became the fifth evictee Big brother 3 Africa on the 19th of October 2008 (Day 56). She was notorious for her gossiping sessions with Ricco and Lucille. Towards the end of her stay Mimi was seen as over confident sometimes even cocky by some of the viewers as she stated many times that Africa would not vote her out.[edit] Morris
Morris Mugisha is the 29 year old representative from Uganda. He became the seventh evictee of Big brother Africa 3 on the 2nd of November 2008 (Day 70).[edit] Munya
Munyaradzi (Munya) Chidzonga is the 22 year old representative from Zimbabwe. Munya finished in third place on the 23rd of November 2008 (Day 91). During his stay in the Big brother house Munya became romantically close with Botswanan housemate Tawana. Midway through his stay Munya took part in a Big brother swap with Finnish housemate Johan. While in Finland Munya grew close to Finnish housemate Cheryll. Towards the end of his stay he became friends with Angolan housemate Ricco.Munya competed as a contestant in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars in which she lasted 91 days and was runner-up in the final. She spent a combined 182 days in the Big Brother house.
[edit] Ricco
Ricardo (Ricco) Venancio is the 21 year old representative from Angola. Ricco was declared the winner of Big brother 3 Africa on the 23rd of November 2008 (Day 91) after a close vote result between him and Hazel in which he received 38.80% to Hazels 38.60%. Early on his stay in the house Ricco found himself attracted to Tanzanian housemate Latoya. Towards the end of his stay he found himself attracted to Botswanan housemate Tawana, so much so that a night of drinking may or may not have led the two become closer. During his stay in the house Ricco also became friends with Munya as well as Mimi and Lucille.[edit] Sheila
Sheila Kwamboka is the 23 year old representative from Kenya. She became the fourth evictee of Big Brother 3 Africa on the 12th of October 2008 (Day 49). She is a former beauty queen under the Kenyan Miss tourism title but she was dethroned due to controversies. Sheila will be remembered for her talkative attitude and entertaining personality as well as her relationship with Takondwa during her stay in the house and her bisexuality.In 2010 Sheila competed as a contestant on Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars and lasted until the final on day 91. She has spent a total of 140 days in the Big Brother house.
[edit] Takondwa
Takondwa Nkonjera is the 25 year old representative from Zambia. He became the sixth evictee of Big brother 3 Africa on the 26th of October 2008 (Day 63). While in the house Takondwa started a relationship with fellow housemate Sheila from Kenya. Takondwa also made many enemies in the house when during the second round of nominations he as hoh chose to replace himself who was already up for nomination with his friend and fellow housemate Lucille. Also while in the house Takondwa was up for nomination five times but was saved three of the times, twice by himself and once by fellow housemate Morris.[edit] Tawana
Tawana Lebale is the 31 year old representative from Botswana. She became the ninth and final evictee of the season on the 16th of November 2008 (Day 84). Early on in her stay Tawana was fake evicted to the Big brother dump along with Tanzanian housemate Latoya after which she and Latoya were both up for eviction. Tawana managed to survive the first eviction and returned to the house. During the rest of her stay in the Big brother Africa house Tawana became romantically close with fellow housemates Ricco and Munya, but stated that she only felt feelings for Munya. She was not initially nominated for eviction in round nine of nominations but was selected by Munya to replace Ricco as the second nominee in the final eviction. Tawana caused a lot of controversy amongst fans of the reality show due to her sexual escapades with various housemates.[edit] Thami
Thamsanqa (Thami) Prusent is the 26 year old representative from South Africa. He became the eighth evictee from Big brother 3 Africa on the 9th of November 2008 (Day 77). While in the house Thami started a relationship with fellow housemate Hazel from Malawi. Towards the end of the season both Thami and Hazel were nominated many times and in the eighth round of nominations they found themselves nominated against each other.[edit] Uti
Uti Nwachukwu is the 25 year old representative from Nigeria. He became the third evictee of Big Brother Africa 3 house on the 5th of October 2008 (Day 42). During his stay Uti was known for often teasing his fellow housemates(mostly Mimi and Thami). During Namibian housemate Lucilles eviction Uti had a violent out burst upon learning that she had been evicted.In 2010 Uti compeated as a contestant in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars in which he lasted 91 days and ultimately won by defeating Munya is a final vote of 8 to 7. He has spent a combined total of 133 days in the Big Brother house.
[edit] Johan
Johan, from Finland was swapped with Munya.[edit] Nominations
Each week housmates nominate two other housemates for eviction in the Diary Room and must give justified and clear reasons.[1] The Head of House may be nominated for eviction as well. After the nominees are revealed to the House, the current Head of House can save a nominee for eviction including themselves if they are nominated and replace the saved nominee with another nominee. While this is revealed to the viewers, the House does not know of the decision until eviction night Sunday.[2][edit] Voting
Each eviction week viewers in the 12 participating countries vote to eliminate a housemate they do not like. The majority for each country will be counted as a vote.[3] In addition to the 12 participating countries, all other countries not participating in the show can still vote for who they would like to eliminate. The "other countries" counts for the 13th vote.[4][edit] Head of House
The Head of House (or HOH) is a position in the house that gives one housemate each week special privileges over the other Housemates. It is a power similar to both the Head of Household and the Power of Veto used in the American, Brazilian and British version of Big Brother. During nominations the Head of House can be nominated for eviction by their fellow housemates. Then the Head of House can chose to save a nominee or save themselves from eviction and nominate a new housemate for eviction. While the decision is released to the public, the House will not know of the decision until Sunday, eviction night.[2][edit] Nominations Table
A record of the nominations cast, stored in a nominations table, shows how each Housemate nominated other Housemates throughout his or her time in the house. The Head of House can chose to save a nominated Housemate each week and nominate another Housemate to face the public vote. Twists to the normal nominations process are noted, such as immunity from nomination and eviction (referred to as "exempt")Nomination notes
^1 On Day 2, Housemates were asked to name 2 housemates one of which they would consider their "Hero" the person they would most like to live with for the full 91 days and one that they would consider a "Zero" the person that they thought deserved to leave the house as soon as possible. The first name they gave was that of their "hero" and the second name they gave was that of their "zero". These nominations did not count and no one was put up for the public vote. ^2 On day 8, Housemates were asked to nominate two housemates for eviction. These nominations did count and Morris and Thami were nominated for eviction but the eviction will be fake. The housemates were not told the nominations were fake. After the nominations were done, the housemates were told which housemates had received the highest number of votes. ^3 On day 21 there was a fake double eviction. The two housemates who have been evicted (Latoya and Tawana), have been sent to the big brother rubbish dump. On day 28, one of them will be evicted permanently, while the other will be returned to the house. The other housemates do not know that one of their housemates will be returning to them. ^4 The Head of House Takondwa chose to save himself from nomination, and replace himself with Lucille. ^5 The Head of House Takondwa chose to save himself from nomination, and replace himself with Ricco. ^6 The Head of House Morris chose to save Takwonda from nomination and replace him with Ricco. ^7 Munya was exempt from nominations and immune from eviction this week as he was in the Big brother Finland house when nominations took place. ^8 The Head of House Munya chose to save Ricco from nomination and replace him with Tawana. ^9 In the final week viewers were voting for who they wanted to see win the show instead of who they wanted to evict. ^10 Due to a 6-6 deadlock between Hazel and Ricco, in accordance with the rules of Big Brother Africa, Ricco won as the housemate with the largest percentage of votes castBig Brother Africa 4
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Big Brother Africa 4 (also known as Big Brother Africa: The Revolution) was the fourth series of the Big Brother Africa reality television series produced by Endemol. The series began airing on September 6, 2009, and aired for 91 days, ending on December 6, 2009 on M-Net. Nigerian television star IK Osakioduwa was the new host for the series. The grand prize fund this year is $200,000Format
This year's format has changed from past seasons.[2] Some of the changes are:- Housemates are now allowed to freely discuss nominations.
- The public will vote to save, not voting to evict. However, some weeks have included the public voting to evict instead of to save.
- The winner receives $200,000.
- On Day 0, twelve all-male housemates entered the House, with no female housemates entered.
- One housemate, Edward, has a twin brother, Erastus, who are both part of the twin twist. Every few days, Edward and Erastus will switch places. Their mission is to keep secret that they have switched places. If they both successfully do this for two weeks, they will play individually. Three people are allowed to find out, but if four people find out, they will play as one housemate. They were successful, and allowed to play as individuals. Erastus became the seventh person to be evicted from the House on Day 28.
- For the first time, on Day 7, two housemates, Teddy and Wayoe, became evicted as part of a double eviction.
- After the double eviction, twelve all-female housemates entered a house next door, without the male housemates knowing. The female housemates spied on the male housemates for one week, before entering the main house.
- For the first time, on Day 28, three housemates, Erastus, Rene, and Paloma became evicted as part of a triple eviction.
- On Day 28, it was announced that all remaining housemates would no longer be competing individually, but in pairs. The pairs will play the game as one. If one member is nominated, both are nominated. If one is saved by the Head of House, both are safe. If one is evicted, then both are evicted. Although, diary sessions can be still individual. The pairs were:
- Jeremy and Geraldine
- Edward and Emma
- Kaone and Liz
- Itai and Nkenna
- Hannington and Yacob
- Quinn and Kristal
- Mzamo and Leonel
- Kevin and Elizabeth
- On Day 49, the pairs were dismantled and the housemates were, again, playing as individuals.
[edit] Housemates
A total of 25 housemates entered the House, an increase than previous series. Fourteen countries; Angola, Botswana, Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe participated in this year's series.[1] On Day 0, twelve male housemates entered the House. During week one, Edward's twin, Erastus, switched places with each other. They will switch on and off in the first two weeks. On Day 7, twelve female housemates entered a secret House next door. On Day 14, Edward and Erastus was revealed to the male housemates as twins, and from now on will play as individuals.[edit] Edna
Edna Alfredo is a 27 year old graduate from Angola. Edna became the third person to be evicted from the House on Day 14.[edit] Edward
Edward Moongo is a 33 year old Public Relations Officer from Namibia. Edward finished in third place during finale night on Day 91.[edit] Elizabeth
Elizabeth Gupta is a 23 year old actress from Tanzania. Elizabeth became the seventeenth housemate to be evicted from the House on Day 63. Now engaged to former housemate at Big Brother Africa 4, Kevin Chuwang Pam[edit] Emma
Emma da Rocha is a 24 year old student from Angola. Emma finished as runner-up during finale night on Day 91.[edit] Erastus
Erastus Moongo is Edward's 33 year old twin from Namibia. He works as a business owner. Erastus became the seventh person to be evicted from the House on Day 28.[edit] Geraldine
Geraldine Iheme is a 24 year old student from Nigeria. Geraldine became the nineteenth housemate to be evicted from the House on Day 77.[edit] Hannington
Hannington Kuteesa is a 23 year old student from Uganda. Hannington, along with his partner Yacob, became the first pair, and eleventh person to be evicted from the House on Day 35.In 2010 Hannigton competed as a contestant in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars. He survived 61 days before being removed from the house due to his physical fight with housemate(barnmate) Leratio on day 58. Overall Hannington has spent 96 days total in the Big Brother House.
[edit] Itai
Itai Makumbe is a 31 year old Masters student from Zimbabwe. Itai became the twentieth housemate to be evicted from the House on Day 84.[edit] Jennifer
Jennifer Mussanhane is a 22 year old graduate from Mozambique. Jennifer voluntarily walked on Day 21.In 2010 Jennifer competed as a contestant in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars amd lasted 77 days, for a total 98 combined.
[edit] Jeremy
Jeremy Ndirangu is a 22 year old developer from Kenya. Jeremy became the sixteenth housemate to be evicted from the House on Day 56.[edit] Kaone
Kaone Ramontshonyana is a 26 year old Principal Youth Officer from Botswana. Kaone, along with his partner Liz, became the second pair, and thirteenth housemate to be evicted from the House on Day 42.In 2010 Kaone is competing as a contestant in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars.
[edit] Kevin
Kevin Chuwang is a 27 year old entertainer from Nigeria. Kevin became the winner on Day 91, walking away with $200,000.[edit] Kristal
Kristal Culverwell is a 26 year old technician from Zimbabwe. Kristal, along with her partner Quinn, became the third pair, and fifthteenth housemate to be from the House evicted on Day 49.[edit] Leonel
Leonel Estevoa is a 23 year old IT administrator from Mozambique. Leonel became the eighteenth housemate to be evicted from the House on Day 70.[edit] Liz
Liz Coka is a 22 year old from South Africa. Liz, along with her partner Kaone, became the second pair, and twelfth housemate to be from the House evicted on Day 42.[edit] Maggie
Maggie Mungalu is a 23 year old student/model from Zambia. Maggie became the fourth person to be evicted from the House in a double eviction on Day 14.[edit] Mzamo
Mzamo Chibambo is a 24 year old PA from Malawi. Mzamo finished in fourth place during finale night on Day 91.[edit] Nkenna
Nkenna Iwuagwu is a 23 year old from Nigeria. Nkenna finished in fifth place during finale night on Day 91.[edit] Paloma
Paloma Manda is a 25 year old sales assistant from Zambia. Paloma became the ninth person to be evicted from the House on Day 28, after a triple eviction.In 2010 Paloma competed as a contestant in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars in which she lasted 84 days in the house, for a total of 112 days for both her stays in the Big Brother house.
[edit] Phil
Filbert Okure is a 25 year old Marketing Consultant from Uganda. Phil became the fifth person to be evicted from the House on Day 21.[edit] Quinn
Quinn Sieber is a 21 year old Media Diploma student from South Africa. Quinn, along with his partner Kristal, became the third pair, and fourteenth housemate to be from the House evicted on Day 49.[edit] Rene
Rene Moolman is a 26 year old hairstylist from Namibia. Rene became the eighth person to be evicted from the House on Day 28, after a triple eviction.[edit] Teddy
Edward "Teddy" Muthusi is a 34 year old developer from Kenya. Teddy was the first person to be evicted from the House on Day 7.[edit] Wayoe
George Wayoe is a 34 year old web developer from Ghana. Wayoe was the second person to be evicted from the House on Day 7, as part of a double eviction.[edit] Yacob
Yacob Yehdego is a 28 year old assistant manager from Ethiopia. Yacob, along with his partner Hannington, became the first pair, and tenth person to be evicted from the House on Day 35.In 2010 Yacob participated as a contestant in Big Brother Africa 5: All-Stars; he lasted 50 days bebore he quit. Yacob has spent a total of 85 in the Big Brother House.
[edit] Nominations table
Each week the housemates must nominate two of their fellow housemates for eviction. Each week the HoH must choose to save one of the initial evictees and replace them with another housemate. In weeks when more than two housemates are nominated for eviction the voting results to save are revealed as evict votes which go to housemates who received the least amount of votes in a country or countries. Any changes that effect nominations are noted.Nomination notes
- ^1 In Week 1, all housemates were asked to nominate two housemates for eviction. What the housemates didn't know was that these nominations were voided and all of the housemates had automatically been nominated for eviction.
- ^2 In Week 2, twelve female housemates entered a secret house next door to the real Big Brother House. The male housemates are unaware of this, so male housemates nominated males. The females nominated female housemates only. Similar to Week 1, nominations were voided, and all female housemates had automatically been nominated for eviction, with the male housemates left exempt from eviction.
- ^3 In Week 3, Head of House Kevin chose to save Edward from eviction and nominated Phil in his place.
- ^4 Jennifer voluntarily walked out of the Big Brother House on Day 21, however, the eviction still took place as usual.
- ^5 In Week 4, Head of House Elizabeth chose to save Liz from eviction and nominated Erastus in her place.
- ^6 In Week 5, all housemates were paired up with another housemate. However, housemates will still nominate individually. If one member of their team is nominated, then both are nominated. Housemates will also be evicted as pairs.
- ^7 In Week 5, Head of House Itai chose to save Kristal and Quinn from eviction and nominated Elizabeth and Kevin in their place.
- ^8 In Week 6, Head of House Quinn chose to save himself and Kristal from eviction and nominated Edward and Emma in their place.
- ^9 In Week 7, Head of House Leonel chose to save himself and Mzamo from eviction and nominated Elizabeth and Kevin in their place.
- ^10 In Week 8, all remaining pairs were broken and housemates were told they would, again, be competing as individuals.
- ^11 In Week 8, Head of House Nkenna chose to save Itai from eviction and nominated Emma in his place.
- ^12 In Week 9, Head of House Edward chose to save Mzamo from eviction and nominated Elizabeth in her place.
- ^13 In Week 10, Head of House Edward chose to save Itai from eviction and nominated Kevin in his place.
- ^14 In Week 11, Head of House Itai chose to save himself from eviction and nominated Geraldine in his place.
- ^15 In Week 12, Head of House Edward chose to save Mzamo from eviction and nominated Kevin in her place.
- ^16 For the final voting results, it was decided that the winner would be the housemate who received the most amount of win votes.
Big Brother Africa 5
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Big Brother Africa 5 (also known as Big Brother Africa: All-Stars) was the fifth season of the Big Brother Africa reality television series produced by Endemol. The season premiered on Sunday, July 18, 2010 and was broadcasted by M-Net and M-NetAfrica for 91 days, concluding on October 17, 2010. Each week the Housemates nominated two of their own and the public voted to either save or evict them until only 5 Housemates remained on finale night. The grand prize for this season was initially $200,000, however, due to the strike that took place on Day 6, the grand prize was decreased by ten percent meaning that the winner will now receive $180,000.[1] Since that incident and toward the end of the series, the grand prize has been reinstated as $200,000 although this reinstatement was never formally announced to the housemates and the publicFormat
The voting system for the fifth season will follow that of the fourth season with the public usually voting to save rather than to evict. This season also featured prior houseguest as contestants.From Big Brother Africa 1: 2 contestants (Mwisho & Sammi)
From Big Brother Africa 2: 4 contestants (Code, Lerato, Meryl, Tatiana)
From Big Brother Africa 3: 3 contestants (Munya, Sheila, Uti)
From Big Brother Africa 4: 5 contestants (Hannigton, Jennifer, Kaone, Paloma, Yacob)
- As an added twist, this season each housemate entered the house with a secret that is worth $1,000. Should a housemate make it to their eviction without their secret being discovered they will earn the $1,000. However, should a housemate's secret be discovered before their eviction, the housemate who discovered their secret will acquire the $1,000 prize that came with it and the housemate who's secret it was will lose said $1,000. This format is similar to that used in the French and the new Portuguese versions of Big Brother.[2]
| Name | Secrets | Discovered by |
| Code | He has been celibate for seven months. | |
| Hannington | He had a fling with his girlfriend's mother. | No one; he revealed his secret before his eviction on day 14 |
| Jennifer | She ran away and eloped with a man who was 30 when she was 16. | |
| Kaone | He was arrested after assaulting a friend with a bowl of eggs. | Tatiana discovered his secret prior to the eviction on 84 |
| Lerato | She has a piercing in a strange place. | Tatiana discovered her secret |
| Meryl | She is having an affair with a Namibian celebrity. | |
| Munya | He kissed another man while he was acting in a movie. | No one; he revealed his secret on day 14 |
| Mwisho | He is dating two girls at the same time. | |
| Paloma | She peed in her pants after trying weed. | |
| Sammi | He had an illegitimate child who died. | No one; he revealed his secret before his eviction on day 14 |
| Sheila | She has a phobia of short people. | |
| Tatiana | She can sing well, but no one has ever heard her sing. | |
| Uti | He was a Britney Spears fan. | |
| Yacob | He has never been in love. | |
[edit] The Barn
New this season is the area called The Barn. On Day 14, following the eviction of Hannington and Sammi, Big Brother revealed that this year all evicted housemates will move to the "Barn", where they will live for an undisclosed amount of time. Eventually, some of the housemates living in the barn may return to the main house. [3] In comparison to the main house the barn is a more simple house. So far those sent to the barn have received visits from others they know family members, friends, and significant others (boyfriend/girlfriend etc..). The barn official closed down on day 77.On Saturday nights dubbed "All-Star Saturday Night('s)", both housemates and barnmates had performances from various DJ's/Performers from the various African countries of the continent. Performances from musicians and entertainers also occurred during the live eviction shows, the launch show, and the final show.
[edit] Housemates
[edit] Code
Code Sangala is a 34 year old radio DJ from Blantyre, Malawi. Code previously competed in Big Brother Africa 2 where he finished in fifth place after becoming the eighth housemate to be evicted on Day 77. Code entered the house on Day 1.[edit] Hannington
Hannington Kuteesa is a 24 year old business owner from Kampala, Uganda. Hannington previously competed in Big Brother Africa 4 where he finished in fifteenth place after becoming the tenth housemate to be evicted along with Yacob on Day 35. Hannington entered the house on Day 1. Hannington was evicted from the Big Brother house on Day 14 along with Ghanaian housemate Sammi, but was moved to the barn soon after the eviction took place. On day 61, Hannington was evicted due to physically fighting with Lerato on day 58.[edit] Jennifer
Jennifer Mussanhane is a 23 year old international politics graduate from Maputo, Mozambique. Jennifer previously competed in Big Brother Africa 4 where she finished in twenty first place after becoming the first Big Brother Africa housemate ever to voluntarily leave the show on Day 21. Jennifer entered the house on Day 1.[edit] Kaone
Kaone Ramontshonyana is a 26 year old radio producer and features presenter from Gaborone, Botswana. Kaone previously competed in Big Brother Africa 4 where he finished in where thirteenth place after becoming the twelfth housemate to be evicted along with South African representative Liz on Day 42. Kaone entered the house on Day 1. Kaone was fake evicted from the Big Brother house on Day 7 along with Angolan housemate Tatiana, but returned to the house soon after the eviction took place.[edit] Lerato
Lerato Sengadi is a 26 year old events coordinator from Soweto, South Africa. Lerato previously competed in Big Brother Africa 2 where she finished in eighth place after becoming the fifth housemate to be evicted on Day 56. Lerato entered the house on Day 1. Lerato was fake evicted on Day 21 and moved to the "Barn".[edit] Meryl
Meryl Shikwambane is a 24 year old receptionist originally from South Africa, but currently resides in Windhoek, Namibia. Meryl previously competed in Big Brother Africa 2 where she finished in tenth place after becoming the third housemate to be evicted on Day 35. Meryl entered the house on Day 1.[edit] Munya
Munyaradzi "Munya" Chidzonga is a 24 year old film maker and actor from Harare, Zimbabwe. Munya previously competed in Big Brother Africa 3 where he finished in third place on Day 91. Munya entered the house on Day 1.[edit] Mwisho
Mwisho Mwampamba is a 29 year old business owner from Morogoro, Tanzania. Mwisho previously competed in Big Brother Africa 1 where he finished as the seasons Runner-Up on Day 106. Mwisho entered the house on Day 1.[edit] Paloma
Paloma Manda is a 26 year old sales consultant from Kitwe, Zambia. Paloma previously competed in Big Brother Africa 4 where she finished in seventeenth place after becoming the eighth housemate to be evicted along with Namibians Erastus and Rene on Day 28. Paloma entered the house on Day 1.[edit] Sammi
Samuel "Sammi" Kwame Bampoe is a 35 year old musician and broadcaster from Accra, Ghana. Samuel previously competed in Big Brother Africa 1 where he finished in ninth place after becoming the fourth housemate to be evicted on Day 70. Sammi entered the house on Day 1. Sammi was evicted from the Big Brother house on Day 14 along with Ugandan housemate Hannington, but was moved to the barn soon after the eviction took place. On Day 33, Sammi was forced to voluntarily leave the barn due to medical reasons.[edit] Sheila
Sheila Patricia Kwamboka is a 25 year old writer, director and actor from Nairobi, Kenya. Sheila previously competed in Big Brother Africa 3 where she finished in ninth place after becoming the fourth housemate to be evicted on Day 49. Sheila entered the house on Day 1.[edit] Tatiana
Tatiana Dos Santos Durao is a 29 year old actress, musician and model from Luanda, Angola Tatiana previously competed in Big Brother Africa 2 where she finished in third place on Day 98. Tatiana entered the house on Day 1. Tatiana was fake evicted from the Big Brother house on Day 7 along with Botswanian housemate Kaone, but returned to the house soon after the eviction took place. On day 28, Tatiana was evicted again and placed into the barn.[edit] Uti
Uti Nwachukwu is a 27 year old model and actor from Lagos, Nigeria. Uti previously competed in Big Brother Africa 3 where he finished in tenth place after becoming the third housemate to be evicted on Day 42. Uti entered the house on Day 1.[edit] Yacob
Yacob Yehdego is a 28 year old assistant manager from Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Yacob previously competed in Big Brother Africa 4 where he finished in fifteenth place after becoming the tenth housemate to be evicted along with Hannington on Day 35. Yacob entered the house on Day 1. On day 35 Yacob was evicted and placed into the barn. On Day 50, Yacob voluntarily left the barn.[edit] Summary
Week 1 On day 1 during the live premiere, all 14 houseguests entered the Big Brother house; Sean Paul also performed his songs "Temperature", "Hold My Hand", and "So Fine". The houseguests bet 100% of the budget on the weekly task and ultimately lost. On day 2 both Lerato and Mwisho have been placed up for eviction this week; Mwisho had refused to nominate therefore he was automatically nominated. However at Big Brother's discretion he placed all the houseguests up for eviction for the week. During a random draw of balls from a bag, Tatiana became the 1st Head of House. On Day 6, Housemates staged a protest in the Diary Room due to the lack of food in the house. The housemates went as far as covering all the cameras and windows within the Diary Room with blankets and sheets. With Big Brother not giving in, the Housemates decided to break down a door that would leave them outside of the house. Big Brother called in Head of House Tatiana to the Diary Room but was followed with the rest of the housemates. Security guards were brought into the house to bring order; that order failed as the housemates then held the guards hostage. Big Brother demanded the housemates to release the guards. Big Brother told the housemates to try to maintain with the current food in the house till Monday, much to the displeasure to the rest of the house. Later, Big Brother supplied housemates with food. The Housemates later apologized for their actions and thanked Big Brother.[4] On Day 7, Kaone and Tatiana were fake evicted and returned to the house soon after.[5] A new area of the house, the Barn, was also revealed to the public.[6]Week 2 On day 8 Big Brother deducted 10% of the prize money for the winner of the show and it now stands at $180 000. Big Brother will allow the Housemates to earn the prize money back as a group if the groups ongoing behavior in in the House towards all rules and tasks be satisfactory for the next four weeks. Tatiana, Sammi and Uti were nominated with Tatiana saving herself as the Head of House therefore making Hannigton, Sammi and Uti the nominees for eviction for the week. On day 9 the houseguests wagered 50% and won their task which tested their fears dubbed "Horror Island". On Day 12, Hannington won the Head of House Task which involved the houseguests competing to see who could scream the loudest. Ghanaian musical group Ruff 'n Smooth performed during the eviction show. On day 14 Hannigton and Sammi were evicted than placed into "The Barn"; they may have an opportunity to enter the main house in the future. Tatiana retains her reign as Head of House due to Hannigton's eviction and placing as runner-up in the previous competition.
Week 3 On day 15, Munya and Tatiana were up for eviction this week; Tatiana as Head of House again saved herself making Munya and Lerato the final nominees for eviction. On day 20, Sheila became the Head of House. The Housemates had to write down as many African countries as they knew. There was a three way tie between Munya, Mwisho and Sheila and Sheila later won a quiz on naming capital cities of selected African countries. Also on day 20, Munya considered walking out of the house and quitting the show. On day 21, Lerato was evicted and will go to the barn.; Mr O (Tshaba Tshutshu) a dj/music mixer spun discs for the housemates later that night.
Week 4 On day 22, Munya and Tatiana were up for eviction. During the "Supermodels of Mars" task the houseguests wagered 100% of their weekly budget and won. On day 27, Mix master Joe (Joseph Mwenda) a dj/mixer, performed for the housemates. On day 28, Tatiana was evicted and went to the barn.
Week 5 On day 29, Kaone, Munya, and Yacob were nominated for eviction (each with 6 votes); Kaone as Head of House removed himself making Meryl, Munya, and Yacob the final nominees for the week. This weeks task requires the housemates to build a model of their ideal Big Brother House. The Barnmates wagered 75% while Housemates wagered 100%; the Barnmates were successful while the housemates lost the task this week. On day 33, Tatiana attempted to escape the confines of the barn. Also Sammi was forced to leave The Barn due to medical concerns. On day 34, Dj/music mixer DJ Bego performed for the housemates. On day 35, Yacob was evicted and sent to the barn; fashion model and musician Kenyan Liz (Elizabeth) ‘Loye’ Ogumbo performed during the live eviction show.
Week 6 On day 36, Jen became the replacement head of house due to Yacob's eviction. Code and Munya were nominated for eviction; Jen saved Code so Munya and Sheila are nominated for eviction. Both Housemates and the Barnmates wagered 75% on the task "Big Brother All Stars Radio", which required the contestants to set-up a radio station; the Barnmates were successful in the task. For the Head Of House task the housemates sat in front of a conveyor belt and identified as many food items on a conveyor as possible, while blindfolded. They then had one minute to write all items they remembered; Mwisho won the task. On day 41, Tanzanian dj, DJ Steve performed for the houseguests. On day 42, Sheila was evicted and entered the barn.
Week 7 On day 43, Big Brother announced the three Housemates up for eviction: Uti, Mwisho and Code. As Head of House Mwisho chose to save himself and place Munya up for eviction for the sixth time in a row. Therefore Uti, Munya and Code and the final nominees for the week. On day 49, Zimbabwean performer Stunner performed during the live eviction show and Code was evicted and entered the barn.
Week 8 On day 50, both Meryl and Mwisho were nominated; Meryl saved herself as Head of House and put Paloma in her place making Mwisho and Paloma as the final nominees for the week. Yacob also walked from the barn and the game of Big Brother Africa. For the Head of House task the housemates were required to break free from caterpillar suites and will then fly across a line to the other side of the garden; Uti won and became the new Head of House while the other housemates thought he cheated during the task (it was easier for him to break out of his suit). On day 55, Zambian DJ "Gesh" (Chishala Chitoshi Jr)performed for the housemates. On day 56, Paloma was evicted and entered the barn.
Week 9 On day 57, Jennifer and Uti were nominated for eviction; Uti as Head of House remove himself from nomination making Jennifer and Munya the final nominees for the week. For this weeks task the housemates and barnmates will participate in tasks which will raise awareness about malaria; both the housemates and the barnmates wagered 100% for the task. On day 58, Lerato and Hannington got into a physical fight. This led to both Lerato and Hannington seeing a psychologist and having a consultation on both days 58 and 59. Big Brother stated that the barnmates are "on probation" and there will be no more warning for inappropriate behavior. On day 61, Hannington was disqualified and evicted from the Big Brother House due to the fight with Lerato on day 58. Because of these events Big Brother issued the following punishments; Lerato is unable to nominate for the remainder of the game and they may not consume any alcohol and will be required to do dish washing duties while remaining in the barn. In addition, alcohol will be removed from next week’s shopping list. On day 62, Ghanan DJ "Killer Fingers" from Y107.9FM performed for the housemates and they also saw video messages from loved ones. On day 63, Jennifer was evicted to the barn.
Week 10 On day 64, Munya, Kaone, Mwisho and Uti were nominated for eviction; as head of house Munya removed himself from eviction and replaced himself with Meryl making Meryl, Kaone, Mwisho and Uti the final nominees for the week. On day 69, DJ Pink Panther (Panther Luiz Figuerado) performed for the housemates. On day 70, Meryl was evicted and entered the barn; some former housemates performed including Mimi (season 3), Kevin (winner season 4), and Emma (season 4).
Week 11 On day 71, it was revealed that no housemate will be evicted; from all the barnmates two will be returning to the house this coming week. Tatiana won a bean eating contest (to see if the contestants could live on the staples of cowboys). On day 75, Mwisho earned his second straight Head of House(his 3rd overall). On day 76, Nigerian “DJ Waxxy”(Oluseye Abiodun Olayanju) performed for the houseguests. On day 77, Nigerian singer-songwriter and Dentist Dr SID (Sidney Onoriode Esiri) performed prior to the housemate return; barnmates Sheila and Tatiana(she had more individual votes than Paloma) returned to the main house and are eligible for the grand prize, and were joined by Lerato, who returned to the house after a game of luck, while all the other barnmates were officially evicted from the Big Brother game. Opera singer Bongiwe Madlala performed to official close down the barn.
Week 12 On day 78, Kaone, Munya, Mwisho and Uti were all up for possible eviction; Mwisho as Head of House saved himself and replaced himself with Tatiana making Tatiana, Kaone, Munya, Uti the final nominees for the week. On day 83, Nigerian DJ Caise performed for the housemates. On day 84, prior to the eviction former Mozambican contestant Leonel "Dj Wizard" performed with his band GPRO; Kaone and Tatiana were evicted with no save votes from the house in a double eviction. Tatiana made $3000 after discovering three of her housemates secrets and a R50 000 holiday courtesy of the SA Tourism. Mwisho became the new Head of House for the third consecutive week (his fourth overall) and the last one of the season.
Week 13 Housemates Munya, Lerato, Mwisho, Sheila, and Uti became the finalists and became eligible for the grand prize. On day 90, Zambian DJ Gesh (Chishala Chitoshi Jr) for the second time this season and South Affrican performe C-Live performed for the finale "All-Star Saturday Night" of the season in a Halloween themed show. Big Brother Africa 5: All Stars ended after 91 days on October 17th, 2010. The 2 hour finale included performances by: South African DJ Black Coffee, Nigerian hip hop singer/songwriter 2Face, East African R&B & reggae artist Wyre, rapper MI, and Maye Hunta featuring Vector and Culture who made waves with the “African Star” Big Brother theme song. When the votes were revealed Sheila took 5th place, Mwisho can in 4th, and Lerato came in 3rd each with no votes to win; Munya had 7 votes as runner-up making Uti with 8 votes the winner. Although Munya lost a consortium of business people from Zimbabwe gave [7]Munya US$300 000 as they felt he deserved to win the price money and the voting system was flawed. Following within these events, Multichoice also arranged a consolation price for him.
Nomination Notes
- ^1 On Day 2, Housemates were each asked to nominate two of their fellow housemates for eviction. Mwisho refused to nominate an as punishment was automatically nominated for eviction by Big Brother.
- ^2 Following the first round of nominations, Big Brother decided to disregard the original nomination results and to nominate all housemates for eviction.
- ^3 In Week 2, Head of House Tatiana chose to save herself from eviction and nominated Hannington in her place.
- ^4 As Hannington was evicted at the end of week 2, the Head of House power was given to Tatiana because she finished in second place at the Head of House competition
- ^5 In Week 3, Head of House Tatiana chose to save herself from eviction and nominated Lerato in her place.
- ^6 In Week 4, Head of House Sheila chose to save herself from eviction and nominated Munya in her place.
- ^7 As Tatiana was evicted at the end of week 4, the Head of House power was given to Kaone because he finished in second place at the Head of House competition.
- ^8 In Week 5, Head of House Kaone chose to save himself from eviction and nominated Meryl in his place.
- ^9 In Week 6, Head of House Jen chose to save Code from eviction and nominated Sheila in his place.
- ^10 In Week 7, Head of House Mwisho chose to save himself from eviction and nominated Munya in his place.
- ^11 In Week 8, Head of House Meryl chose to save herself from eviction and nominated Paloma in her place.
- ^12 In Week 9, Head of House Uti chose to save himself from eviction and nominated Munya in his place.
- ^13 As part of her punishment for the fight she had with Uti, from week 10 on, Lerato will not be eligible to nominate.
- ^14 In Week 10, Head of House Munya chose to save himself from eviction and nominated Meryl in his place.
- ^15 In Week 11, all nominations were voided and all barn housemates were automatically nominated for eviction.
- ^16 Following the barnmates eviction in week 11, those who had not been initially saved by the public took part in a random drawing in order to determine who would be the last barnmate to re-enter the main house.
- ^17 In Week 12, Head of House Mwisho chose to save himself from eviction and nominated Tatiana in his place.
- Munya received 12 votes to save: Botswana, Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Uganda and the Rest of Africa.
- Meryl received 3 votes to save: Angola, Kenya and Nigeria.
- Yacob received no votes to save.
- Munya had 10 votes to save: Botswana, Ghana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Uganda and the Rest of Africa.
- Sheila had 5 votes to save: Angola, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and Nigeria.
- Uti received 8 votes to save: Angola, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania and Uganda.
- Munya received 6 votes to save: Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe and the Rest of Africa.
- Code received 1 vote to save: his home country, Malawi.
- Mwisho received 9 votes to save: Angola, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda and the Rest of Africa.
- Paloma received 6 votes to save: Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
- Munya received 14 votes to save: Angola, Botswana, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Uganda and the Rest of Africa.
- Jennifer received 1 votes to save: Nigeria.
- Uti received 8 votes to save: Angola, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Uganda and the Rest of Africa.
- Kaone received 6 votes to save: Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
- Mwisho received 1 votes to save: Tanzania
- Meryl received 0 votes to save.
- Sheila received 8 votes to return: Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Uganda and the Rest of Africa.
- Tatiana received 2 votes to return: Botswana and Ghana. (Based on more individual votes)
- Paloma received 2 votes to return: Angola and Zambia.
- Code received 1 vote to return: Malawi.
- Lerato received 1 vote to return: South Africa.
- Meryl received 1 vote to return: Tanzania.
- Jen received 0 votes to return.
- Up until this week all evicted housemates were sent to the barn
- Code, Jen, Lerato, Meryl, and Paloma were officially evicted from the Big Brother House.
- Munya received 9 votes to save: Botswana, Ghana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
- Uti received 6 votes to save: Angola, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda and the Rest of Africa.
- Kaone received 0 votes to save.
- Tatiana received 0 votes to save.
- Kaone and Tatiana were evicted in a double eviction.
- For the final week, viewers voted for the winner of the series.
- Uti received 8 votes and won the show: Angola, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, Uganda and the Rest of Africa.
- Munya received 7 votes to win and finished in 2nd place: Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
- Lerato received 0 votes to win and finished in 3rd place.
- Mwisho received 0 votes to win and finished in 4th place.
- Sheila received 0 votes to win and finished in 5th place.
By Tim Lambert
ANCIENT AFRICA
Scientists believe that Africa was the birthplace of mankind. By 100,000 BC modern humans lived by hunting and gathering with stone tools. From Africa they spread to Europe.
By 5,000 farming had spread to North Africa. People herded cattle and they grew crops. At that time the Sahara Desert was not a desert. It was a green and fertile area. Gradually it grew drier and became a desert.
Meanwhile about 3,200 BC writing was invented in Northeast Africa, in Egypt. (It is sometimes forgotten that one of the world's oldest and greatest civilisations was African). The Egyptians made tools and weapons of bronze. However by the time Egyptian civilisation arose most of Africa was cut off from Egypt and other early civilisations by the Sahara Desert. Africa was also hampered by its lack of good harbours, which made transport by sea difficult.
Farmers in Africa continued to use stone tools and weapons however about 600 BC the use of iron spread in North Africa. It gradually spread south and by 500 AD iron tools and weapons had reached what is now South Africa.
In 814 BC the Phoenicians from what is now Lebanon founded the city of Carthage in Tunisia. Carthage later fought wars with Rome and in 202 BC the Romans defeated the Carthaginians at the battle of Zama. In 146 BC Rome destroyed the city of Carthage and made its territory part of their empire.
Meanwhile Egyptian influence spread along the Nile and the kingdoms of Nubia and Kush arose in what is now Sudan. By 100 AD the kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia was highly civilised. Axum traded with Rome, Arabia and India. Axum became Christian in the 4th century AD.
Meanwhile the Roman Empire continued to expand. In 30 BC Egypt became a province of Rome. Morocco was absorbed in 42 AD. However the rest of Africa was cut off from Rome by the Sahara Desert.
AFRICA IN THE MIDDLE AGES
In 642 the Arabs conquered Egypt. In 698-700 they took Tunis and Carthage and soon they controlled all of the coast of North Africa. The Arabs were Muslims, of course, and soon the whole coast of North Africa converted to Islam. Ethiopia remained Christian but it was cut off from Europe by the Muslims.
After 800 AD organised kingdoms emerged in northern Africa. They traded with the Arabs further north. (Trade with the Arabs led to the spread of Islam to other parts of Africa). Arab merchants brought luxury goods and salt. In return they purchased gold and slaves from the Africans.
One of the earliest African kingdoms was Ghana (It included parts of Mali and Mauritania as well as the modern country of Ghana). By the 9th century Ghana was called the land of gold. However Ghana was destroyed in the 11th century by Africans from further north.
By the 11th century the city of Ife in Southwest Nigeria was the capital of a great kingdom. From the 12th century craftsmen from Ife made terracotta sculptures and bronze heads. However by the 16th century Ife was declining.
Another African state was Benin. (The medieval kingdom of Benin was bigger than the modern country). From the 13th century Benin was rich and powerful.
Meanwhile the kingdom of Mali was founded in the 13th century. By the 14th century Mali was rich and powerful. Its cities included Timbuktu, which was a busy trading centre where salt, horses, gold and slaves were sold. However the kingdom of Mali was destroyed by Songhai in the 16th century.
Songhai was a kingdom situated east of Mali on the River Niger from the 14th century to the 16th century. Songhai reached a peak about 1500 AD. However in 1591 they were defeated by the Moroccans and their kingdom broke up.
Another great north African state was Kanem-Bornu, located near Lake Chad. Kanem-Bornu rose to prominence in the 9th century and it remained independent till the 19th century.
Meanwhile the Arabs also sailed down the east coast of Africa. Some of them settled there and they founded states such as Mogadishu. They also settled on Zanzibar.
Inland some people in southern Africa formed organised kingdoms. About 1430 impressive stone buildings were erected at Great Zimbabwe.
Meanwhile in the Middle Ages Ethiopia flourished. The famous church of St George was built about 1200.,/P>
Meanwhile the Portuguese were exploring the coast of Africa. In 1431 they reached the Azores. Then in 1445 they reached the mouth of the River Congo. Finally in 1488 the Portuguese sailed around the Cape of Good Hope.
AFRICA 1500-1800
In the 16th century Europeans began to transport African slaves across the Atlantic. However slavery was nothing new in Africa. For centuries Africans had sold other Africans to the Arabs as slaves. However the trans-Atlantic slave trade grew until it was huge.
In the 18th century ships from Britain took manufactured goods to Africa. They took slaves from there to the West Indies and took sugar back to Britain. This was called the Triangular Trade. (Many other European countries were involved in the slave trade).
Some Africans were sold into slavery because they had committed a crime. However many slaves were captured in raids by other Africans. Europeans were not allowed to travel inland to find slaves. Instead Africans brought slaves to the coast. Any slaves who were not sold were either killed or used as slaves by other Africans. The slave trade would have been impossible without the co-operation of Africans many of whom grew rich on the slave trade.
Meanwhile from the 16th to the 18th centuries Barbary pirates from the North African coast robbed Spanish and Portuguese ships.
In the 16th century a people called the Turks conquered most of the North African coast. In 1517 they captured Egypt and by 1556 most of the coast was in their hands.
Further south Africans continued to build powerful kingdoms. The empire of Kanem-Bornu expanded in the 16th century using guns bought from the Turks. However in the 16th century Ethiopia declined in power and importance although it survived.
Meanwhile the Europeans founded their first colonies in Africa. In the 16th century the Portuguese settled in Angola and Mozambique while in 1652 the Dutch founded a colony in South Africa.
MODERN AFRICA
In the 19th century European states tried to stop the slave trade. Britain banned the slave trade in 1807. On the other hand in the late 19th century Europeans colonised most of Africa!
In 1814 the British took the Dutch colony in South Africa. In 1830 the French invaded northern Algeria. However colonisation only became serious in the late 19th century when Europeans 'carved up' Africa. In 1884 the Germans took Namibia, Togo and Cameroon and in 1885 they took Tanzania. In 1885 Belgium took over what is now Democratic Republic of Congo. The French took Madagascar in 1896. They also expanded their empire in northern Africa. In 1912 they took Morocco and Italy took Libya. In 1914 the British took control of Egypt. By then all of Africa was in European hands except Liberia and Ethiopia. (The Italians invaded Ethiopia in 1896 but they were defeated by the Ethiopians).
Further south the British took Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Uganda and Kenya. The British also took control of Egypt. Angola and Mozambique remained Portuguese.
However in the early 20th century attitudes to imperialism began to change in Europe. Furthermore in Africa churches provided schools and increasing numbers of Africans became educated. They became impatient for independence. The movement for African independence became unstoppable and in the late 1950s and 1960s most African countries became independent. In 1960 alone 17 countries gained their independence. However Mozambique and Angola did not become independent until 1975.
Yet the newly independent states were often failures. Many suffered civil wars and brutal dictators like Idi Amin. Today most of Africa remains very poor. One reason is corruption on a massive scale. Many African rulers bled their countries dry and made themselves very rich. Another reason is gross economic mismanagement. In the 1970s Socialist policies proved disastrous in countries like Zambia and Tanzania while in the 2000s Robert Mugabe wrecked the Zimbabwean economy.
Africa also suffered severely from the AIDs pandemic.
However it was not all bad news. Botswana is one African success story. Furthermore many African countries have now adopted market economies. With the right policies there is hope for Africa.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF BOTSWANA
By Tim Lambert
Early Botswana
After 1000 AD the pastoralists formed organised kingdoms. In the 13th century a powerful chiefdom arose with its capital at Mapungubwe Hill. However they were eclipsed by Great Zimbabwe, which took over many chiefdoms in Eastern Botswana.
In the early 19th century Botswana was plunged into a series of wars known as the Difaqane. As a result there were great migrations of refugees. However in the 1840s order returned.
From the 1820s Christian missionaries arrived in Botswana. Traders seeking ivory also spread the new religion. In 1841 David Livingstone went to Kuruman.
However there was a new threat - the Boers.
Modern Botswana
The Boers were Dutch-speaking farmers from South Africa. In 1836 they trekked north to form the Transvaal. In 1884 the Germans took Namibia and the British feared they would link up with the Boers in the Transvaal. To forestall them in 1885 the British declared Botswana a protectorate. It was called Bechuanaland. However the British made very little attempt to develop Bechuanaland and they left it largely alone.In 1948 Seretse Khama, prince of the Bangwato married an Englishwoman called Ruth Williams. The South Africans objected to the cross-racial marriage. To appease the South Africans the British invited Seretse to London then barred him from re-entering his own country! He did not return to Botswana till 1956 and was forced to renounce his claim to the throne.
However across Africa in the 1950s there was an unstoppable move towards independence. In 1960 the Bechuanaland People's Party was formed. In 1961 Bechuanaland was granted its own legislative council. Then in 1962 Seretse Khama founded the Bechuanaland Democratic Party and in 1963 work began on building a capital at Gaborone. In 1965 Bechuanaland was granted internal self-government. Finally on 30 September 1966 the Republic of Botswana became independent.
Botswana turned out to be an African success story. In the late 20th century the economy grew rapidly. Diamonds were discovered in 1967 at Orapa. In 1977 Lethlhekane mine opened and in 1982 Jwaeng mine opened. Tourism is also an important industry in Botswana. Manufacturing industry is also growing in Botswana.
Today the population of Botswana is 1.9 million.
A SHORT HISTORY OF ZAMBIA
By Tim Lambert
ANCIENT ZAMBIAIn about the 4th AD century a new wave of Bantu speaking immigrants arrived from the north. They were farmers and they had iron tools and weapons. The farmers grew sorghum and beans as well as bananas and yams. They raised herds of cows and goats. They also did some hunting with iron tipped arrows. The farmers also made pottery.
They lived in small villages of a dozen or so houses and each little village was more or less self sufficient. The farmers made huts of poles and lathes arranged with a central enclosure where the cattle and goats were kept at night. The men were buried in this enclosure when they died.
The farmers practised slash and burn agriculture. They moved on when they had exhausted the soil. The farmers seem to have lived peacefully alongside the bushmen for centuries.
A MORE ADVANCED SOCIETY
By the 11th or 12th centuries a more advanced iron age culture called the Luanga culture had arisen. The original farming villages were mainly self sufficient but by the 12th century long distance trade was flourishing.
One trading centre was called Inge-ambe-Ilede (the place where the cow lies), near the confluence of the Zambezi and the Kafue. Cotton weaving, ivory carving, and metalwork were all carried on there. Copper was made into bracelets or it was made into crosses, which were used as currency. The population rose and political units grew larger.
By 1500 organised kingdoms arose. Chewa in the east, Lozi in the west, Bemba and Lunda in the north were the largest of these. In the 16th century some men were buried with gold beads. The rulers also had glass beads from the Indian Ocean coast.
THE EUROPEANS ARRIVE IN ZAMBIA
By 1500 the Portuguese were sailing around the coast of Africa (although they did not penetrate far inland). They brought new foods from the Americas, maize and cassava.
They also brought the slave trade. (There was already slavery on a small scale in the African kingdoms e.g. criminals and prisoners of war could be made into slaves but the Portuguese introduced slavery on a much larger scale). They offered African rulers goods in return for slaves. So African tribes raided other tribes to capture slaves to sell to the Portuguese. But the people of Zambia had no direct contact with Europeans until the 19th century.
In the early 19th century Shaka, the Zulu ruler, began conquering neighbouring peoples. He displaced whole peoples across southern and central Africa. The effects were felt as far north as Zambia. One tribe fled from their home in South Africa. Their leader named the tribe after his favourite wife, Kololo. In the 1830's they crossed the Zambezi and marched to the area north of the Victoria Falls. Later they marched west and subdued the Lozi kingdom of the Upper Zambezi. They founded the Kololo kingdom. (Later, in the 1860's the Lozi managed to regain control of their territory).
Yet another people called the Ngoni left Shaka's domain in the 1820's. They crossed the Zambezi in 1835 and went as far north as Lake Tanganyika. Later they settled in east Zambia. The Ngoni lived partly by raiding other tribes or raiding trader's caravans.
The first European to visit the area was David Livingstone. He travelled there in 1851. He visited the Kololo kingdom and saw the nobles wearing British cloth that had been sold to Africans by the Portuguese in Angola. He was also the first European to see the Victoria Falls. Livingstone formed a mission in the Kololo kingdom but it failed because most of its members died.
Livingstone wished to convert the Africans and also wished to put an end to the slave trade. He knew the Africans wanted European goods and would sell slaves to get them. He hoped he could replace the slave trade with legitimate commerce. He knew the Africans grew cotton and there was a great demand for it in Europe. There was also a European market for ivory (it was used to made keyboards and snooker balls). Livingstone hoped he could persuade the Africans to sell cotton or ivory to the Europeans in return for their goods instead of selling slaves.
The idea failed because goods would have to be taken to Mozambique for export. Unfortunately a gorge in Mozambique made the river unavigable and it was too difficult too transport goods by foot.
THE BEGINNING OF BRITISH RULE IN ZAMBIA
After Livingstone Zambia was left to go its own way for 35 years. It came under British rule in the years 1889 to 1901 due to the efforts of Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902). In 1889 Rhodes set up the South African Company (SAC) to exploit minerals in southern and central Africa. The British treasury refused to finance colonies in Africa. However Rhodes and his company made treaties with African tribes allowing them the right to prospect for and mine minerals.
Once the British started mining in African territory they gradually took it over. Lewanika, king of the Lozi in west Zambia sought British protection from another tribe the Ndebele. There were also rivals for his throne and he thought having a British representative at his court would strengthen his position. He also hoped the British would set up schools and educate his people. He dealt with a representative of the SAC in the mistaken belief that he was talking to a representative of the British government.
The king allowed them to mine in his kingdom and agreed that British nationals in his territory in return for £2000 a year and protection from the Ndeble. But the British did not deal decisively with the Nedeble until 1893 when they raided the Lozi again. Furthermore no money was sent until 1897 no British representative was sent to his court until the same year.
Rhodes and his men made treaties with other tribes in 1891-1894. These included the Tabwa, Lungu and the Mambe.
However the Bemba and the Ngoni refused to negotiate and they were conquered by force. At first the Bemba held their own against the small number of British troops sent against them. But the Bemba lived by raiding long distance caravans. As the Europeans took over more and more of Africa these caravans ceased. Without them to prey on the Bemba grew weaker. Finally in 1898 a French Catholic missionary declared himself king of the Bemba and welcomed the SAC's soldiers into the capital. In the south-east the Ngoni were defeated by British machine guns.
The British then took Ngoni land and cattle and forced the men to become wage labourers. However Rhodes and his men did not find great mineral wealth in Zambia. They found some copper oxide, a kind of copper ore at or near the surface and some zinc but nothing like the amount of valuable minerals they hoped they would find. (Below the copper oxide was a vast amount of copper sulphide, a different type of ore but this was not discovered till the 1920s). So the British imposed a hut tax. Every able bodied man had to pay the tax in cash. That meant that many men were forced to work as wage labourers in Zimbabwe or South Africa. Uprisings against the tax were suppressed by force. If any man defaulted his hut was burned and if he was caught he was imprisoned.
However only small numbers of Europeans actually came to live in the new colony. There were only about 3,000 in 1914. Most of them lived in a strip of land beside the railway that ran north to south through the middle of the colony. They lived on farms worked by African labourers. However many Indians came to work as traders and craftsmen in the colony. They were seen as 'middlemen' between the Europeans and the Africans.
ZAMBIA IN THE EARLY 20th CENTURY
Livingstone was founded in 1905 when a railway bridge was built across the Zambezi. (A railway was built north from Rhodesia. It reached Zaire in 1909). Residents of a settlement called Old Drift then moved to the site. At first Zambia was divided into 2 parts. They were called Northwest Rhodesia and Northeast Rhodesia. After 1907 Livingstone was the capital of Northwest Rhodesia. In 1911 the 2 halves were united to form one colony and Livingstone became the capital. Lusaka was founded in 1905 to serve a lead mine at Kabwe. (It became the capital in 1935). Ndola was founded in 1904.
Zambia, or North Rhodesia as it was called, suffered severely in World War I. Some 3,500 Zambians joined the armed forces to fight against the Germans in Tanzania (which was then a German colony). Between 50,000 and 100,000 Zambians joined the British army as porters. Worse much grain and many cattle were impounded for military use.
Attitudes to the Africans had changed by 1923 (in Britain anyway) and company rule was no longer acceptable to the British government. So in that year Zambia was made a crown protectorate. In 1925 a legislative council was formed but the franchise effectively excluded blacks. Nevertheless in 1929 the British colonial secretary declared that in future the interests of the Africans was paramount. Unfortunately his words made very little difference to the lives of ordinary Africans.
NEW MINERAL WEALTH IN ZAMBIA
The fate of Zambia changed dramatically in the late 1920s when rich underground deposits of copper and cobalt were discovered. Kitwe was founded as a copper mining centre in 1936. By 1939 Zambia was the worlds main source of copper and was potentially a rich country. By 1930 there were about 30,000 African miners in Zambia and about 4,000 white miners who did the skilled and managerial jobs. In the early 1930s demand for copper fell but the price of copper rose between 1935 and 1937 and the workforce expanded.
Furthermore the number of white people in Zambia rose sharply after copper was discovered. There were about 13,000 of them by 1939, 3 times the 1930 figure. Many of these whites came from South Africa.
In the early 20th century the British government hoped that large numbers of whites would come and settle in Zambia. They therefore divided the land into 2, some for whites and some for Africans. But the expected influx of whites did not happen. Most of the land set aside for them remained empty. However so much land was set aside for whites that the Africans were left short. This and the need to pay taxes meant most of the Africans were forced to become wage labourers for whites. By 1936 it was estimated that 60% of able bodied men in Zambia were working away from home. About 60,000 were employed in Zambia often as miners. Many more worked on plantations in Zimbabwe or Tanzania.
The large numbers of men working in the mines had an important social effect. It tended to weaken tribal bonds. Miners tended to see themselves as miners, foremost, rather than belonging to this or that tribe. And they began to organise themselves. There were no African trade unions in the 1930's but in 1935 the African miners went on strike spontaneously. There were also riots. The army was sent to suppress them. Six miners were killed and 22 were wounded.
In 1940 the white miners went on strike and forced their employers to give them better conditions. Although they still did not have a trade union the Africans decided to follow their example. Again there were riots, which were suppressed by force. This time 17 miners were killed and 64 were wounded.
However in 1948 the African miners founded a proper trade union. So did the African railwaymen in 1949. The existence of African trade unions was a major threat to British rule.
There were other signs of change in the 1930s. The missionaries had been providing schools since the late 19th century. In the 1930s the British government began to provide them. There were a growing number of educated Africans working as clerks, traders and teachers and they too began to organise themselves. They formed welfare associations. By 1933 there were ones in Abercorn, Kasama and Fort Jameson. At first the welfare associations campaigned against local injustices but later they began to campaign for independence. In 1946 14 of them joined to form the Federation of African Societies of North Rhodesia (the old name for Zambia).
CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT IN ZAMBIA
There were also changes in the way the colony was ruled in the 1930s and 1940s. After 1930 the British adopted a policy of indirect rule. African chiefs were given a role in local administration. After the riots in the copperbelt in 1935 the government formed urban advisory councils to give urban Africans an 'advisory' role in the way their towns were run. Furthermore in 1943 African provincial councils were formed. They were made up mainly of traditional chiefs but they did contain some elected members.
Finally in 1946 an African Representative Council was formed; 25 members were elected and 4 were appointed by the paramount chief of Barotseland (in the west of Zambia). In 1948 some Africans were appointed to the legislative council. In 1949 the first real independence movement was begun when the African Nationalist Congress (ANC) was formed from the welfare associations first begun in the 1930s.
The white settlers viewed these settlements with alarm. In 1936 the Europeans in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe began to conspire to keep their power. They decided the best way was to form the 3 different colonies into 1 territory. They believed that would enable them to control the Africans more easily. In the 1940s they campaigned vigorously for unification but they were strongly opposed by the Africans.
Then in 1953 London enforced a compromise. The 3 colonies were not united into one. Instead they were formed into a federation. Each of the 3 colonies had its own government responsible for local administration and 'native affairs'. A federal parliament was formed with authority over matters involving more than 1 colony and over foreign affairs. Of the 35 MPs 6 were to be African, 2 from each colony (although in Zimbabwe only whites were allowed to elect the African MPs!). The African MPs were given the power to query any legislation they considered racist and send it to London to be either approved or vetoed.
However in 1957 and 1958 the federal parliament passed legislation that would increase the number of African MPs but would also reduce the franchise so that the majority of voters were white! The African MPs sent this legislation to London but it was approved. During the period 1953-1963 the Federal government 'creamed off' the revenues from Zambian copper mines and spent very little on the colony. (White Zimbabweans made no secret of the fact that they regarded Zambia as a resource to be exploited).
The only large development in Zambia at that time was the Kariba dam, which was built for hydroelectricity 1955-59. A lake formed behind it in 1960-61 and 50,000 people had to be resettled. Also many wild animals were rescued in operation Noah. New towns appeared. Chingola was founded in 1943 and Kalushi was founded as a company town for miners in 1953. It became a public town in 1958.
Although copper was Zambia's main export by the 1950s there was also a large gemstone industry. Beryl, rubies, sapphires and other precious or semi-precious stones were all mined. Meanwhile the white population continued to grow rapidly and it reached 50,000 by 1955. By then they formed about 3% of the population. Many of these new immigrants came from Britain. They often enjoyed a higher standard of living than they had in post-war Britain with its shortages and rationing. In the late 1950s the average salary for a white worker was £2,071 a year. For a black worker it was £203 a year.
In 1958 the governor introduced a new constitution for the colony. The leader of the ANC accepted it, which provoked a split in the organisation. The more radical members broke away and formed the United National Independence Party (UNIP). After 1961 Kenneth Kuanda led it. White settlers were facing a losing battle. For one thing the number of educated Africans was increasing. After 1953 they were allowed to fill managerial jobs in the 2 main mining companies.
Furthermore the African miners went on strike for 58 days in 1955 and they won a victory. They were becoming better organised. Also world opinion was turning against imperialism. The USA and the USSR now dominated the world and they were both opposed to imperialism (at least when it suited them!). The first African country to gain independence was Liberia in 1957. In 1960 the British prime minister said there was a 'wind of change' blowing through Africa. The British government realised that independence for African countries was now inevitable.
ZAMBIAN INDEPENDENCE
But the white settlers did not give up easily. In 1961 the British secretary of state of colonies proposed a constitution for Zambia, which would guarantee African control. The white settlers pressured him into altering it to give them control. Kaunda threatened to 'paralyse' the government unless the new constitution was changed back. He called for peaceful protests but there were violent uprisings and sabotage. This upheaval was called the cha-cha-cha. The British government eventually gave in. The constitution was amended to give the Africans a small majority in the parliament. In 1962 elections were held and ANC and UNIP formed a coalition in a transitional government while the colony prepared for independence. The federation of Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi was dissolved in 1963.
In January 1964 UNIP won an election and Kaunda became Prime Minister. In that year Alice Lenshina, head of the Lumpa church led a rebellion. Kaunda used force to suppress it. About 700 people were killed. Zambia became independent on 24 October 1964 with Kaunda as president. The new country faced many problems. There were only about 100 native Zambians with university degrees and a lack of qualified people to run the country. Zambia lacked infrastructure and schools. Also 90% of Zambia's foreign earnings were from copper. So Kaunda drew up a development plan for 1965-69. He devoted vast resources to the public sector (health and infrastructure and also to a lesser extent education).
The number of children in primary school doubled between 1964 and 1972. The number in secondary schools rose from 14,000 to 61,000 in the same period.
At first industry grew rapidly. But the economy did well in the 1960s and 1970s mostly because of the high price of copper. After 1974 the price of copper dropped. That caused great harm to the Zambian economy which was largely dependent on copper.
Furthermore in 1967 Kaunda declared his policy of 'humanism' a strange mixture of Christian ethics and socialism. This policy was unsuccessful. The government took a 51% stake in 26 companies, including, in 1969, the 2 main mining companies. In the late 1980s it was estimated that 80% of the economy was made up of state run enterprises but these nationalised industries were wasteful and inefficient.
In 1965 sanctions were imposed on Zimbabwe and Zambia stopped importing goods from that country. But in retaliation the Zimbabweans stopped supplies of petrol being transported through their country to Zambia. Petrol rationing was introduced into Zambia. Petrol was flown in or brought in through Tanzania. Furthermore in 1968 an oil pipeline was built across Tanzania to Zambia. A railway from Zambia to the coast of Tanzania was opened in 1974. Meanwhile Zambia was used as a base by guerrillas fighting a war in Zimbabwe.
Kaunda's grip on power began to slip in the late 1960s. In the 1969 election his party, UNIP, saw its majority reduced. Furthermore in 1971 Simon Kapepwe accused Kaunda of treating the Bemba unfairly. He formed a rival party, the United Progressive Party or UPP, based among the Bemba. Kaunda feared that his 2 rivals, the ANC and the UPP would form an alliance to fight the 1973 election. So in 1972 Kaunda banned opposition parties. They were regionally based so Kaunda accused them of being 'tribalist' (i.e. of putting tribal interests before national ones). Some opposition leaders were imprisoned. Others were persuaded to change sides by offering them well paid jobs. Then opposition groups were either dissolved or absorbed into UNIP. In the 1973 presidential election Kaunda was the only candidate. Voters could vote either yes or no. Kaunda won the election easily. In another election in 1978 Kaunda won an 80% yes vote but in 1983 it fell to 60%.
However in the 1960s and 1970s a bloated beauracracy was created. It soaked up resources. Worse unqualified people were given important jobs. People were given jobs because of their loyalty rather than their skills. Worse they were frequently changed. Between 1964 and 1986 there were 12 ministers of finance and 9 central bank heads. Such frequent changes of people at the top made it very hard to have consistent policies.
Worse the Zambian economy was heavily dependent on copper. From the mid 1970s the price of copper fell - with disastrous results for Zambia. The country was forced to borrow money and Zambia got more and more into debt. In the mid 1980s Zambia was forced to accept IMF adjustment programmes, which were painful for the Zambian people. In 1985 the IMF demanded they reduce civil service manpower by 25%. They also demanded cuts in price subsidies, which provoked riots. In 1985 austerity measures provoked riots at Lusaka university and strikes. More riots followed in 1986 when food subsidies were removed. Twenty people were killed when security forces suppressed the riots. In 1987 Kaunda broke with the IMF but this provoked strong international criticism. In 1988 Kaunda was forced to accept a new agreement.
Living standards fell for most people during the 1980s and 1990s and by 1999 inflation was in triple digits. As the economy deteriorated the churches and trade unions led the growing opposition to Kaunda. In 1990 there were more riots following a doubling of the price of staple foods. Eventually, in June 1990, Kaunda lifted a ban on organised groups. In July the Movement for Multi Party Democracy or MMD was launched. Kaunda also agreed to hold a referendum on whether to keep his one party system. But the MMD was not satisfied. They demanded multi party elections.
Facing increasing opposition from churches and unions Kaunda gave in and called a multi party election in October 1991. The MMD won 125 out of 150 seats. In the Presidential election Frederick Chiluba won 81% of the vote.
The new government abandoned the failed policy of 'humanism'. In the early 1990s Zambia agreed to a structural adjustment program. This including phasing out food subsidies and allowing prices to be set by the market.
It also meant privatising state owned industries. Privatisation began in 1994 and in 2000 70% of the largest mining company was sold. Meanwhile inflation fell from triple digits in 1990 to 25% in 1999. However during the 1990s Zambia was struck by floods and later by droughts. As a result economic growth fluctuated. In some years the economy grew. In others it contracted. Zambia also faced the problem of the AIDS epidemic. By 2000 it was estimated that 10% of the population had either AIDS or the HIV virus. This was on top of the hundreds of thousands who had already died and the thousands of orphans.
In the 1990s developed countries cancelled some of Zambia's debts and in 1999 the price of cobalt rose.
ZAMBIA IN THE 21st CENTURY
In the years from 2005 to 2008 Zambia's economy grew at the quite impressive rate of around 6% a year. Nevertheless in the early 21st century Zambia is still a poor country and most of the workforce are subsistence farmers. There is very little manufacturing industry. Copper mining remains the most important industry but there is also some mining of other metals such as silver, zinc, cobalt and lead. Gemstones were also mined. There is some oil refining, cement making and a chemicals industry. Zambia also has huge potential for tourism with its national parks and the Victoria Falls.
In 2005 the G8 group of rich nations agreed to cancel Zambia's national debt (with effect from January 2006). Furthermore the Zambian economy grew 5% in 2005 but it will take many years of strong economic growth to make a dent in poverty.
Today the population of Zambia is 11.5 million.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF MALAWI
By Tim Lambert
Ancient MalawiAt the time of Christ there was a simple stone age culture in Malawi. The people lived by hunting and gathering. However by the 4th century AD Bantu people arrived in the area and they introduced iron tools and weapons. They also introduced farming.
In the 15th century people who lived south of Lake Nyasa began to build an empire. They created an empire called the Maravi. By the 18th century the Maravi Empire included parts of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. However in the 18th century the Maravi Empire broke up.
Meanwhile in the 16th century the Portuguese reached the Maravi Empire. The people of the empire sold them slaves and ivory. The Portuguese brought maize (originally a South American crop) to this part of Africa.
In the 18th century and early 19th century a people from northern Mozambique called the Yao raided Malawi and took captives to be sold to the Arabs as slaves.
In the 1840s a fierce people called the Ngoni invaded the area. They frequently fought the Yao.
British Malawi
In 1859 David Livingstone the Scottish explorer and missionary reached Lake Nyasa. Following him in 1873 two Scottish Presbyterian missionary societies built missions in the area. More missionaries followed and British merchants began to sell goods in the region. In 1883 Britain sent a consul to the area.
Gradually the British took control of Malawi. In 1889 they formed the Shire Highlands Protectorate and in 1891 most of Malawi was formed into the British Central African Protectorate. The first commissioner was Harry Johnston. The British ended the slave trade and they created coffee plantations. In 1897 Johnston was replaced by Alfred Sharpe.
In 1907 the British named Malawi Nyasaland. Also in 1907 Nyasaland was given a legislative council. The commissioner was made a governor. Alfred Sharpe retired in 1910.
When the First World War began Germans from Tanzania invaded Nyasaland (Malawi) but they were repelled.
However in January 1915 a man named John Chilembwe led a rebellion in Malawi which was quickly crushed.
During World War II almost 30,000 Malawians served in the armed forces.
However as the Africans were increasingly well educated they became more and more dissatisfied with being ruled by Europeans. In 1944 they formed the Nyasaland African Congress. In 1949 native Malawians were allowed to sit on the legislative council for the first time.
Then in 1953 the British joined Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Nyasaland (Malawi) into a single unit called the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
In 1958 Dr Hasting Banda became head of the African Congress, which was renamed the Malawi Congress Party in 1959. There were many protests against British rule and as a result a state of emergency was declared. (During it Banda was imprisoned for a time).
However the British now realised that independence for Malawi was inevitable. In 1961 the Malawian Congress Party won elections to the legislative council and in 1962 the British agreed to make Malawi independent. The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was dissolved in 1963. Malawi became independent on 6 July 1964.
Modern Malawi
At first Banda was prime minister of Malawi. In 1966 Malawi was made a republic. (The British Queen was no longer head of state) and Banda became president.
Under British rule Zomba was the capital of Malawi. In 1975 Lilongwe became the capital.
For economic reasons Banda was keen to have good relations with South Africa. In 1967 he established diplomatic relations. This move was unpopular because South Africa then had a system of apartheid. Nevertheless Banda visited South Africa in 1971.
Furthermore Banda's rule became a dictatorship. In 1971 he made himself president of Malawi for life.
All dissent was ruthlessly crushed. Letters and telephone calls were censored. So were films and magazines.
However like other African dictators Banda himself was very rich, while most of his people were very poor. Banda owned palaces, cars and even helicopters.
Then in 1992 Malawi suffered a severe drought. Not surprisingly there were violent protests in Malawi. Also some western countries suspended aid. The Malawian churches also decried the situation.
Finally in 1993 Banda was forced to hold a referendum. The people were asked if they wanted to continue one party rule or return to democracy. The great majority voted for democracy. So elections were held on 17 May 1993. Bilki Muluzi became the new president.
Today Malawi is still a very poor country. It is also suffering from an AIDS epidemic, which has killed many people.
Today many people in Malawi are subsistence farmers. The main crops are cassava, sorghum and maize. There are also many cattle and sheep. Malawi also has many white owned plantations. Products include tea, tobacco, sugar, cotton and peanuts.
Many Malawians also live by fishing on Lake Malawi. Furthermore Malawi has a great potential for tourism. It has several national parks.
In 2004 Bingu wa Mutharika was elected President of Malawi and he began an anti-corruption drive. Since 2007 Malawi has achieved some economic growth. Although Malawi is still a very poor country there is some reason to be optimistic about its future.
Today the population of Malawi is 15 million.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF TANZANIA
By Tim Lambert
Ancient TanzaniaMeanwhile people on the east coast of Africa had contact with the Mediterranean civilisations. The Persians and later the Romans sailed as far as Tanzania.
Later, by the 8th century, Arab merchants sailed to the area. The Arabs brought Islam and ever since many Tanzanians have been Muslims. Many Arabs settled along the coast and eventually traders came from as far away as India.
In the 11th century AD the ancestors of the Masai began to migrate to Tanzania from southern Sudan. Most of them arrived between the 15th century and the 18th century.
The first European to reach Tanzania was a Portuguese explorer named Vasco Da Gama who arrived in 1498. However Portuguese rule did not extend inland. At first the Portuguese were peaceful but not for long. In 1503 a ship commanded by Rui Lorenco Ravasco came to Unguja Island. The Portuguese captured 20 dhows (Arab sailing ships) and killed about 35 people. The ruler of Zanzibar, the Mwinyi Mkuu was forced to submit. He had to grant the Portuguese access to Zanzibar and he had to agree to provide Portuguese ships with food and water. He also had to pay tribute to Portugal.
In 1505 the Portuguese captured Mombassa and in 1056 they captured Pemba Island. In 1510 the people of Unguja Island and Pemba Island rebelled but they were crushed by the Portuguese.
During the 16th century the Portuguese took control of the coast and they built forts. In 1560 they founded Zanzibar town. The Portuguese also introduced 2 plants from Brazil, cassava and cashew nuts.
However the Portuguese only controlled the coast of Tanzania and in the 17th century they were driven out by Arabs from Oman. The Arabs captured Unguja in 1652. The last Portuguese were expelled from Pemba in 1695.
Finally the last Portuguese stronghold in Tanzania, Fort Jesus in Mombassa was taken in 1698.
The Arab victory ensured that Tanzania did not become a Portuguese colony like Mozambique. Instead from the end of the 17th century the Arabs were the dominant power in the region.
In the 18th century and 19th century Arab slave traders took huge numbers of slaves from Tanzania and exported them from Tanzania. The slaves were sold to Arabs or to European colonies in the Indian Ocean.
In 1812 a man named Saleh bin Haramil introduced cloves to Zanzibar. Soon cloves became a major export. The clove plantations were worked by African slaves.
Colonial Tanzania
In the 19th century Europeans began to explore inland Tanzania. In the 1840s two Germans, Johann Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann reached Mount Kilimanjaro. In 1857 tow Britons, Richard Burton and John Speke reached Lake Tanganyika. In the 1860s missionaries arrived in Tanzania.
Then in 1885 the Germans began taking over the region. The Germans were led by Karl Peters. He formed a company called the German East Africa Company (Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Gesellschaft). Peters persuaded African chiefs to make treaties with his company. Legally Peters acted independently of the German government. Nevertheless his government approved his actions.
Meanwhile the British had taken control of the island of Zanzibar. In 1890 Britain and Germany signed a treaty dividing the area between them. Britain took Zanzibar and Germany took mainland Tanzania. Then in January 1891 the German government took direct control of Tanzania.
However from the start the Germans faced resistance in Tanzania. The first uprising was the Abushiri revolt of 1888. The people on the coast of Tanzania resented German interference and they rose in revolt led by a man named Abushiri bin Salim al-Harth. However the Germans eventually crushed the revolt.
From 1891 to 1898 the Germans fought a war with a people called the Hehe. Eventually the Hehe were defeated and their leader, Mkwawa, killed himself.
In 1905-07 came the Maji Maji rebellion. Africans were forced to work on cotton plantations and eventually southern Tanzania rose in rebellion. The rebellion was crushed after the Germans adopted a 'scorched earth' policy. At least 100,000 people died both as a result of the fighting and as a result of starvation.
Between 1909 and 1913 250 tonnes of dinosaur bones were discovered at Tendaguru, north of Lindi. The bones were shipped to a museum in Berlin.
In 1914 came the First World War. In Tanzania a small German force was led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck. He was a very able man. When a British force landed at Tanga in November 1914 it was defeated and fled leaving many weapons in German hands. The British invaded again in 1916 but they were unable to defeat the Germans.
However by 1917 the Germans in Tanzania were running out of food and ammunition so they turned to guerrilla warfare. They continued to fight until Germany itself surrendered in November 1918.
After the war Tanzania was handed over to the British. It was called Tanganyika. In 1925 Sir Donald Cameron became the first governor. In 1926 a legislative council met.
Under British rule Tanzania exported cash crops like cotton. Much was grown on European owned plantations. However some was also grown by Africans.
Meanwhile the Africans began to organise themselves. In 1929 they formed the African Association in Dar Es Salaam.
Yet in Tanzania the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s were fairly uneventful. However things began to change rapidly in the 1950s.
In 1953 Julius Nyerere was elected president of the Tanganyika African Association. In 1954 it was renamed the Tanzania African National Union. It campaigned for independence with the slogan Freedom and Unity (Uhuu na Umoja). The National Union participated in elections for the legislative council in 1958 and 1959. However two-thirds of the seats were reserved for non-Africans.
In 1960 that restriction was removed and in an election TANU won almost all the seats. The move to independence was now unstoppable and Tanzania became independent on 9 December 1961 with Nyerere as prime minister. On 9 December 1962 Tanzania became a republic and Nyerere became president.
Modern Tanzania
Unfortunately in 1967 Nyerere adopted a policy of socialism. He made the Arusha declaration in which he outlined his vision of a socialist Tanzania. However in Tanzania, as in other countries, socialism proved to a complete failure.
The cornerstone of that policy was called Ujamaa (family hood). Nyerere planned to create huge collective farms. The people were encouraged to move into large villages in which food and other goods would be produced collectively for the whole community.
However the policy proved disastrous for Tanzania. Agricultural production slumped and the Tanzanian economy was wrecked.
Furthermore by 1973 only about 20% of the population had moved to Ujamaa villages. So Nyerere forced people to move and by 1977 about 80% of the population had been resettled. Meanwhile in 1975 Tanzania became a one-party state.
At that time Uganda was ruled by the tyrant Idi Amin. In October 1978 Amin invaded the Kagera region on Tanzania. In January 1979 a Tanzanian force counterattacked and rapidly overran Uganda. The Tanzanians withdrew in 1981.
Meanwhile Nyerere was re-elected president in 1980. However the Tanzanian economy was in tatters and corruption was endemic. Furthermore Tanzania sank heavily into debt. International donors demanded reform in return for help but Nyerere was unwilling to change his policies. So in 1985 he resigned.
He was replaced by Ali Hassan Mwinyi. He spent the next 10 years trying to repair the economy of Tanzania. Mwiyini privatised business and tried to purge corruption. He also encouraged foreign investment. As a result the Tanzanian economy began to grow steadily.
In 1992 Tanzania became a multi-party democracy and in 1995 Benjamin Mkapa became president.
In 2005 Jakaya Kikwete was elected president. Today Tanzania is still very poor. However the government is making strenuous efforts to reduce poverty. In 2001 school fees were abolished and as a result attendance at school greatly increased.
Tanzania is an overwhelmingly agricultural society and many of its people are subsistence farmers. There are also plantations in Tanzania, which grow tea and coffee, tobacco, cotton and cashew nuts. Tanzania also has considerable mineral resources.
Along the coast of Tanzania fishing is important. Tanzania also has great potential for tourism. It has several national parks with animals like lions, leopards, crocodiles, giraffes and hippopotamus.
Today the population of Tanzania is 42 million.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF UGANDA
By Tim Lambert
In 1875 the explorer Henry Stanley reached Uganda. At that time Uganda was divided into kingdoms. Shortly afterwards the first missionaries came to Uganda. The first Anglican missionaries arrived in Uganda in 1877. The first Roman Catholic missionaries arrived in 1879. Catholics, Protestants and Muslims all tried to convert the Ugandans.However there was much hostility to the new religions. In 1885 James Hannington the first bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa was murdered.
Nevertheless in the wake of missionaries came trade. In 1888 the British government gave the British East Africa Company control of Uganda. Meanwhile the European powers decided to divide up Africa among themselves. In 1890 Germany and Britain signed an agreement confirming that Uganda was in the British sphere of influence.
Gradually the company took control of Uganda and the local chiefs were reduced to being puppet rulers.
Finally in 1894 the British government made Uganda a protectorate (colony). However the traditional chiefs were kept as puppets.
In 1904 cotton was introduced to Uganda and by 1914 huge amounts of cotton were being exported. Moreover in the 1920s large amounts of tea and coffee were grown in Uganda.
Meanwhile the missionaries provided schools for Ugandans and literacy became increasingly common. In 1920 executive and legislative councils were formed in Uganda. The country continued to develop and in 1929 a railway joined Toror and Soroti.
During World War II Uganda exported wood for the war effort. However the Ugandans were becoming restive. Riots took place in 1945 and in 1949. Yet in 1945 the first 3 Africans were appointed to the legislative council. In 1950 the number of African members was increased to 8.
Furthermore after World War II the governor Sir John Hall (1944-1951) promoted mining in Uganda. In 1954 a hydroelectric plant was opened at the Owen Falls on the Nile. Meanwhile coffee and cotton exports boomed.
A census in 1948 showed there were almost 5 million African Ugandans, almost 37,000 Asians and less than 3,500 Europeans. (From the end of the 19th century many Asians migrated to Uganda and they formed a middle class of traders and shopkeepers between the natives and the whites).
Yet a 'wind of change' was blowing through Africa in the early 1960s and Uganda became independent from Britain on 9 October 1962. The first constitution was federalist. The first president of Uganda was Mutesa, King of Buganda and the first prime minister was Milton Obote.
When Uganda became independent many Asians (but not all) migrated to Britain.
However Milton Obote had no intention of sharing power with the president. In 1966 he staged a coup and the president fled abroad. Obote became dictator. However in January 1971 when Obote was in Singapore attending a meeting Idi Amin staged a coup.
Amin turned out to be one of the worst tyrants of the 20th century. The number of people he murdered was at least 100,000 and possible many more. Apart from those Ugandans who were shot others were tortured to death or bludgeoned to death with sledgehammers or iron bars.
Amin also decided to help himself to the Ugnadan Asian's wealth. There were about 70,000 Asians in Uganda in 1972 many of them shopkeepers and businessmen. Amin gave them 90 days to leave the country. They were forced to leave most of their property behind and it was shared among Amin's cronies.
However as a result of the loss of the Asian's skills and the murders of many professional Ugandans the economy collapsed. Infrastructure such as roads and water supply deteriorated.
In order to distract attention from the terrible economic situation in Uganda Amin decided to invade Tanzania on 30 October 1978. However the war turned into a disaster for Amin. Early in 1979 the Tanzanians invaded Uganda and Amin's forces fled.
Unfortunately Amin was never brought to justice for his terrible crimes. He fled abroad and died in 2003.
After the war elections were held and Obote became prime minister again. However the election was rigged so Obote's opponents formed a guerrilla army to fight him. It was called the National Resistance Army and soon it controlled a large part of western Uganda.
Meanwhile Obote attempted to make himself a dictator once again. He introduced a repressive regime, imprisoning anyone who opposed him and muzzling the press. Western journalists were expelled from Uganda.
However the National Resistance Army took more and more territory. Finally in 1986 they entered the capital and took over all of Uganda apart from parts of the north. Yet Obote's supporters in the north were eventually persuaded to lay down their arms.
With the return of political stability economic growth began again in Uganda and during the 1990s Uganda prospered. Many of the Asians who had fled to Britain were persuaded to return to Uganda.
However Yoweri Museveni the new president refused to allow political parties until 2005.
Today Uganda is still an overwhelmingly agricultural country and its main export is coffee. Yet the Ugandan economy is growing strongly and there is every reason to be optimistic about its future.
Today the population of Uganda is 32 million.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF KENYA
By Tim Lambert
The earliest inhabitants of Kenya were hunter-gatherers but from about 2,000 BC herders came to the region Then from about 800 AD Arabs sailed to Kenya. Some settled and intermarried and they created the Swahili culture along the coast.The first European to reach Kenya was Vasca da Gama in 1498. Subsequently the Portuguese dominated the coast of Kenya for 2 centuries. However they did not penetrate inland. Still the Portuguese brought new crops to Kenya, maize and cassava.
Then in the late 19th century Kenya came under British control. In 1883 Joseph Thomson was sent to map Kenya. Then in 1885 the European powers divided up Africa between themselves at the Berlin Conference and Britain was allocated Kenya.
At first Kenya was administered by the Imperial British East Africa Company, which was formed in 1887. However in 1895 the British government took responsibility for Kenya. Then in the years 1895-1901 the British built a railway across the region. In the early 20th century while settlers flocked into Kenya taking the best land and the natives were forced onto reservations. Indians also came to Kenya and formed a middle class or traders.
Naturally the Africans resented their treatment and in 1921 they formed the East African Association to fight for their rights. In 1924 it changed its name to the Kikuyu Central Association. In 1927 Jomo Kenyatta became its Secretary. Meanwhile schools were founded in Kenya and the Africans became better educated. Many of them fought in the Second World War but afterwards they were treated as second-class citizens again. Their resentment eventually boiled over into the Mau Mau uprising in Kenya.
The Mau Mau formed in 1952. They took secret oaths to kill Europeans and African collaborators. In 1952 a state of emergency was declared in Kenya. British troops were sent to deal with the insurgency. Then in 1953 the British began detaining Kikuyu in concentration camps. Slowly the British hunted down the insurgents and by the end of 1956 the uprising was over.
Nevertheless the movement towards African independence was unstoppable. In 1961 an African political party Kenya African National Union was formed and in May 1963 KANU won a majority of seats in the Kenyan assembly. Finally Kenya became independent on 12 December 1963. In 1964 Jomo Kenyatta became president of Kenya and Kenya joined the Commonwealth.
The late 1960s and 1970s were years of prosperity for Kenya and agriculture developed rapidly. However Kenyatta died in 1978 and Daniel arap Moi then became leader of Kenya. In 1982 he banned opposition political parties and in 1987 he changed the constitution of Kenya to strengthen his powers. However in the 1990s Moi faced growing opposition.
In 1991 Moi was forced to allow other political parties to form in Kenya. Despite the opposition he was re-elected in 1992 and in 1997. Then in 1998 a bomb exploded in the US embassy in Nairobi. The explosion killed 224 people and for a short time it had a devastating effect on tourism in Kenya. However the tourists soon returned.
Then in 2002 Mwai Kibaki became leader of Kenya and in 2003 he introduced free primary education. However in 2009 northern Kenya suffered a drought. However despite that the Kenyan economy has grown in recent years and there is reason to be optimistic about the countries future. Today the population of Kenya is 39 million.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA
By Tim Lambert
Dedicated to Anthony Simon PursellEarly South Africa
Over a hundred thousand years ago people in what is now South Africa lived by hunting animals and gathering plants. They used stone tools. Then about 2,000 years ago people in the west learned to herd sheep and cattle. About 200 AD people mixed farming (growing crops as well as raising livestock) and iron tools were introduced into the east of South Africa.
At the end of the 15th Century the Portuguese sailed past the Cape of Good Hope. However it was not until 1652 that the Europeans founded a colony in South Africa. In 1652 the Dutch, led by Jan van Riebeeck founded a base where ships travelling to the Far East could be supplied. From 1658 the Dutch imported slaves into South Africa. Meanwhile, at first the Europeans traded with the native people but they soon fell out. In 1658 they fought their first war, the first of many.
Gradually the Dutch colony in South Africa expanded and from 1688 French Huguenots (Protestants) arrived fleeing religious persecution. Slowly the native people were driven from their land and in 1713 many died in a smallpox epidemic.
British South Africa
In 1795 the British captured Cape Colony (South Africa). They handed it back to the Dutch in 1803 but took it again in 1806. In 1814 a treaty confirmed British ownership of Cape Colony and British settlers began to arrive. In 1812 the British founded Grahamstown and in 1820 4,000 Britons were granted land by the Great Fish River.
The Boers (Dutch settlers) in South Africa resented British rule. When slavery was abolished in 18344 they were antagonised still more. Finally the Boers began a mass migration away from the British called the Great Trek. In 1838 the Boers fought and defeated the Zulus at the battle of Blood River. Eventually the Boers founded two republics away from the British, Orange Free State and Transvaal. In the 1850s the British recognised the two Boer republics.
However the situation changed in 1867 when diamonds were found in Northern Cape. In 1871 diamonds were also found at Kimberley. Gold was discovered at Gaueng in 1886.
Meanwhile in 1879 the British fought the Zulus in South Africa. The British were badly defeated by the Zulus at the Isandhlwana but they went on to win the war.
Increasingly the British were keen to bring all of South Africa, including the Boer republics under their control. In 1884 Lesotho became a British protectorate. In 1894 the Kingdom of Swaziland became a protectorate.
Meanwhile British settlers had moved into the Transvaal Republic. The Boers called them Uitlanders (foreigners). Cecil Rhodes was Prime Minister of British South Africa from 1890 to 1895 and in 1895 he plotted a rebellion by Uitlanders in the Transvaal, which would be supported by a force from South Africa led by Leander Starr Jameson. The aim was to overthrow the government of Paul Kruger, President of the Transvaal. However the Jameson Raid of January 1896 was defeated by the Boers and Jameson himself was captured. The two Boer republics formed and alliance and hostility between them and the British grew.
Finally in October 1899 war began in South Africa between the Boers and the British. At first the Boers were successful but in 1900 more British troops arrived and the Boers were pushed back. The Boers then turned to guerrilla warfare. However Kitchener, the British commander began herding Boer women and children into concentration camps where more than 20,000 of them died of disease.
The Boers finally surrendered in 1902 and the British annexed the Boer republics. In 1910 a United South Africa was given a constitution. It became known as the Union of South Africa.
From the start black people were very much second-class citizens in South Africa. Most lived in tribal reserves and laws of 1913 and 1936 prevented them owning land outside certain areas. Most blacks were not allowed to vote. In 1912 black South Africans founded the South African National Congress (later the ANC) but at first they achieved little.
In 1914 South Africa joined the First World War against Germany. That year there was a rebellion by the Boers, which was crushed. In 1918 Afrikaners (descendants of Dutch settlers) founded a secret organisation called the Broederbond (brotherhood).
In 1939 South Africa joined the Second World War against Germany. However some Afrikaners opposed this decision.
In 1948 the National Party came to power in South Africa. The party introduced a strict policy of apartheid (separateness). Whites and blacks were already segregated to a large degree. New laws made segregation much stricter.
However in 1955 organisations representing black people, white people, coloureds and Indians formed the Congress Alliance. In 1955 they adopted the Freedom Charter. Yet divisions soon occurred. In 1958 some black South Africans broke away from the ANC and they formed the pan Africanist Congress or PAC. They were led by Robert Sobukwe.
In 1960 both the ANC and the PAC planned demonstrations against the pass laws, which restricted the movements of black people. On 21 March 1960 Sobukwe led thousands of people in a demonstration. In Sharpeville the police fired at them killing 69. The government banned the ANC and the PAC. And in 1963 Nelson Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment.
Meanwhile in 1961 South Africa left the Commonwealth and became a republic.
In 1966 Prime Minister Mendrik Verwoerd was assassinated but otherwise South Africa was quiet until 1976, although naturally black resentment continued to simmer below the surface.
Rioting began in Soweto on 16 June 1976. The riots spread and they continued into 1977. In 1978 P W Botha became prime minister. He was determined to continue apartheid and in 1983 he introduced a new constitution with a tri-cameral parliament, with houses for whites, coloureds and Indians (with no representation for blacks). However the new constitution pleased nobody. Meanwhile other countries were increasingly imposing economic sanctions on South Africa and inside the country resistance to apartheid grew. In 1989 Botha was forced from office. He was replaced by Willem de Klerk who in 1990 pledged to end apartheid. He also realeased Nelson Mandela. De Klerk introduced a new constitution with rights for all. The first democratic elections were held in Qpril 1994 and in May 1994 Nelson Mandela was elected president. He retired in 1999 but the ANC continued to hold power.
In the early 21st century many South Africans were still poor but the economy is grew steadily. However South Africa suffered with the recession of 2009 and the country suffers from poor infrastructure. However tourism is booming.
Today the population of South Africa is 49 million.
FACTS
| Facts on Angolans
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| Fun Facts Quiz: 1. What's the Capital of Angola? 2. What the population of Angolans 3. What's the population of the Angolan Capital See answer (s) to fun facts below.
1. The Capital of Angola is Luanda 2. What the population of Angola is 12,127,071 3. The population of Luanda is 1.5 million |
| People, Culture and Places in Ethiopia  Ethiopia is a land of wonder and enchantment, a country with one of the richest histories on the African continent, a land of contrasts and surprises, of remote and wild places, home to cultured and friendly people who are descended from some of the world's oldest civilizations.Ethiopia is the land of the fabled Queen of Sheba, home of the Ark of the Covenant, the birthplace of Coffee. The Ethiopian capital, Addis Ababa, has so much to offer visitors: the Historic Route, covering the ancient town of Axum, with its amazing carved obelisks, Christian festivals and relics, including the Ark of the Covenant; Gondar, with its castles and palaces. Addis Ababa is home to the African Union. |
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| Meet African singles in the Ethiopian Chat Room |
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|  Have you heard of the word Friendly? That's the definition of Ghanaians. Akwaaba (welcome) is now becoming a worldwide language because of the West African country of Ghana. This beautiful West African country was named after the ancient Ghana. Ghana News papers are one of the most vibrant in Africa. Ghanaians have successfully held four continuous elections in which there has been a change of government. Ghanaian websites are springing up daily, enabling them connect with each other. SuperGhana.com is an example of a modern Ghanaian Chat Room with video. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Population: | 1,954,033 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2004 est.) |
| Age structure: | 0-14 years: 42.4% (male 419,700; female 409,156) 15-64 years: 54% (male 527,553; female 528,386) 65 years and over: 3.5% (male 30,427; female 38,811) (2004 est.) |
| Median age: | total: 18.3 years male: 18 years female: 18.6 years (2004 est.) |
| Population growth rate: | 1.25% (2004 est.) |
| Birth rate: | 33.51 births/1,000 population (2004 est.) |
| Death rate: | 21.02 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.) |
| Net migration rate: | 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2004 est.) |
| Sex ratio: | at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.78 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (2004 est.) |
| Infant mortality rate: | total: 69.58 deaths/1,000 live births female: 66.43 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.) male: 72.65 deaths/1,000 live births |
| Life expectancy at birth: | total population: 40.53 years male: 42.36 years female: 38.64 years (2004 est.) |
| Total fertility rate: | 4.65 children born/woman (2004 est.) |
| HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: | 21.3% (2003 est.) |
| HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: | 210,000 (2001 est.) |
| HIV/AIDS - deaths: | 16,000 (2003 est.) |
| Nationality: | noun: Namibian(s) adjective: Namibian |
| Ethnic groups: | black 87.5%, white 6%, mixed 6.5% note: about 50% of the population belong to the Ovambo tribe and 9% to the Kavangos tribe; other ethnic groups are: Herero 7%, Damara 7%, Nama 5%, Caprivian 4%, Bushmen 3%, Baster 2%, Tswana 0.5% |
| Religions: | Christian 80% to 90% (Lutheran 50% at least), indigenous beliefs 10% to 20% |
| Languages: | English 7% (official), Afrikaans common language of most of the population and about 60% of the white population, German 32%, indigenous languages: Oshivambo, Herero, Nama |
| Literacy: | definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 84% male: 84.4% female: 83.7% (2003 est.) |
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Test your Lagos Knowledge 1. Is Lagos the Most Populous City in Africa?2. What is the Population of Lagos? Answer to questions on Lagos 1. Lagos is not the biggest in Africa, Lagos comes second after Cairo in Egypt2. The range of population varies from 10-15 million. Huge variation, we know. | | Facts on the People of Nigeria
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| People of South Africa | ||
|  South Africa is undoubtedly Africa's most successful country. Some major cities in South Africa are Johannesburg and Cape Town of the major cities is Johannesburg. Known throughout the world for its rich mineral veins of gold, Johannesburg is also blessed with another natural treasure. Even though South Africa is the richest among African countries, SA has her own problems. The government was particularly disquieted that the country was not only among the most unequal in the world - falling behind only Brazil and Guatemala - but that the gap between whites and blacks was increasing. Chat African Singles in the South African Chat Room | |
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People of Tanzania and President Jakaya Kikwete
Talk of political stability in Africa and Tanzania will surely make it to the top of the list. Tanzania is the biggest among the East African countries (i.e. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania).
This fine African country stands out among the peers in tourism too. Ever heard of Mt. Kilimanjaro? Mt. Kilimajaro is Africa’s highest and snow-capped mountain. Tanzania has a spectacular landscape of mainly three physiographic regions.
The Great Rift Valley that runs from north east of Africa through central Tanzania is another landmark that adds to the scenic view of the country.
The country has the largest concentration of wild animals. It also has pristine sandy beaches and home to the world famous National Parks and Game Reserves.
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Pre colonial Nigeria
Before the colonial period, the area which comprises modern Nigeria had an eventful history. More than 2,000 years ago, the Nok culture in the present Plateau state worked iron and produced sophisticated terra cotta sculpture. In the northern cities of Kano and Katsina, recorded history dates back to about 1000 AD. In the centuries that followed, these Hausa kingdoms and the Kanem-Bornu empire near Lake Chad prospered as important terminals of north-south trade between North African Berbers and forest people who exchanged slaves, ivory, and kola nuts for salt, glass beads, coral, cloth, weapons, brass rods, and cowrie shells used as currency.
Before the colonial period, the area which comprises modern Nigeria had an eventful history. More than 2,000 years ago, the Nok culture in the present Plateau state worked iron and produced sophisticated terra cotta sculpture. In the northern cities of Kano and Katsina, recorded history dates back to about 1000 AD. In the centuries that followed, these Hausa kingdoms and the Kanem-Bornu empire near Lake Chad prospered as important terminals of north-south trade between North African Berbers and forest people who exchanged slaves, ivory, and kola nuts for salt, glass beads, coral, cloth, weapons, brass rods, and cowrie shells used as currency.
In the southwest, the Yoruba kingdoms of Ife and Oyo were founded about 1400. Ife reached its peak in the 15th and 16th centuries, producing the famous, naturalistic terra cotta and bronze heads associated with Ife. The kingdom of Oyo developed later, and at its height from the 17th to 19th centuries attained a high level of political organization and extended as far as modern Togo until civil war between the Yoruba cities reduced its power. In the south central part of present-day Nigeria, as early as the 15th and 16th centuries, the Kingdom of Benin had developed an efficient army; an elaborate ceremonial court; and artisans whose works in ivory, wood, bronze, and brass are prized throughout the world today.
The 1911 Catholic Encyclopedia wrote, "Numerous explorers had long before reconnoitred the river and the neighbouring country. Among the most famous were Mungo Park (1795-1805), Clapperton (1822), René Caillé (1825), Lander, Barth, Mage, and the French officers Galliéni, Mizon, Hourst, and Lenfant. In 1879, on the initiative of Sir George Goldie, the English societies established in the region purchased all the French and foreign trading stations of Lower Niger and in 1885 obtained a royal charter which constituted them the Royal Company of the Niger. The Royal Company developed rapidly and acquired immense territories, often at the cost of bloodshed."
In the 17th through 19th centuries, European traders established coastal ports for the increasing traffic in slaves destined for the Americas. Commodity trade, especially in palm oil and timber, replaced slave trade in the 19th century, particularly under anti-slavery actions by the British Navy. In the early 19th century the Fulani leader Usman dan Fodio brought most areas in the north under the loose control of an Islamic Fulani Empire centered on Sokoto.
A British Sphere of Influence
Following the Napoleonic wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a sphere of influence in that area received international recognition and, in the following year, the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. In 1900, the company's territory came under the control of the British Government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On January 1, 1901 Nigeria became a British protectorate.
In 1914, the area was formally united as the "Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria." Administratively, Nigeria remained divided into the northern and southern provinces and Lagos colony. Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences felt in Nigeria's political life ever since. Following World War II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British Government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative, increasingly federal, basis.
Independence
Nigeria was granted full independence in October 1960, as a federation of three regions (northern, western, and eastern) under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary form of government. Under the constitution, each of the three regions retained a substantial measure of self-government. The federal government was given exclusive powers in defense and security, foreign relations, and commercial and fiscal policies. The British Monarch was still head of state, but legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament, executive power in a prime minister and cabinet, and judicial authority in a Federal Supreme Court. Political parties, however, tended to reflect the make up of the three main ethnic groups. The NPC, (Nigerian people's Congress), represented conservative, Muslim, largely Hausa interests, and dominated the Northern Region. The NCNC (National Convention of Nigerian Citizens), was Igbo and Christian dominated, ruling in the Eastern Region, and the AG (Action Group) was a left-leaning party that controlled the Yoruba west. The first post-independence National Government was formed by a conservative alliance of the NCNC and the NPC, with Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, a Hausa, becoming Nigeria's first Prime Minister. The Yoruba-dominated AG became the opposition, under its charismatic leader, Chief Obafemi Awolowo.
The First Republic
In October 1963, Nigeria altered its relationship with the United Kingdom by proclaiming itself a Federal Republic. Nnamdi Azikiwe, the last Governor General, became the country's first President. A fourth region (the midwest) was established that year. From the outset, Nigeria's ethnic, regional, and religious tensions were magnified by the significant disparities in economic and educational development between the south and the north. The AG was maneuvered out of control of the Western Region by the Federal Government, and a new, conservative, pro-government Yoruba party, the NNDP, took control of the region. Shortly afterward, the AG opposition leader, Chief Obafemi Awolowo, was imprisoned on treason charges that were later admitted to be without foundation.
The 1911 Catholic Encyclopedia wrote, "Numerous explorers had long before reconnoitred the river and the neighbouring country. Among the most famous were Mungo Park (1795-1805), Clapperton (1822), René Caillé (1825), Lander, Barth, Mage, and the French officers Galliéni, Mizon, Hourst, and Lenfant. In 1879, on the initiative of Sir George Goldie, the English societies established in the region purchased all the French and foreign trading stations of Lower Niger and in 1885 obtained a royal charter which constituted them the Royal Company of the Niger. The Royal Company developed rapidly and acquired immense territories, often at the cost of bloodshed."
In the 17th through 19th centuries, European traders established coastal ports for the increasing traffic in slaves destined for the Americas. Commodity trade, especially in palm oil and timber, replaced slave trade in the 19th century, particularly under anti-slavery actions by the British Navy. In the early 19th century the Fulani leader Usman dan Fodio brought most areas in the north under the loose control of an Islamic Fulani Empire centered on Sokoto.
A British Sphere of Influence
Following the Napoleonic wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a sphere of influence in that area received international recognition and, in the following year, the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. In 1900, the company's territory came under the control of the British Government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On January 1, 1901 Nigeria became a British protectorate.
In 1914, the area was formally united as the "Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria." Administratively, Nigeria remained divided into the northern and southern provinces and Lagos colony. Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences felt in Nigeria's political life ever since. Following World War II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British Government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative, increasingly federal, basis.
Independence
Nigeria was granted full independence in October 1960, as a federation of three regions (northern, western, and eastern) under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary form of government. Under the constitution, each of the three regions retained a substantial measure of self-government. The federal government was given exclusive powers in defense and security, foreign relations, and commercial and fiscal policies. The British Monarch was still head of state, but legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament, executive power in a prime minister and cabinet, and judicial authority in a Federal Supreme Court. Political parties, however, tended to reflect the make up of the three main ethnic groups. The NPC, (Nigerian people's Congress), represented conservative, Muslim, largely Hausa interests, and dominated the Northern Region. The NCNC (National Convention of Nigerian Citizens), was Igbo and Christian dominated, ruling in the Eastern Region, and the AG (Action Group) was a left-leaning party that controlled the Yoruba west. The first post-independence National Government was formed by a conservative alliance of the NCNC and the NPC, with Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, a Hausa, becoming Nigeria's first Prime Minister. The Yoruba-dominated AG became the opposition, under its charismatic leader, Chief Obafemi Awolowo.
The First Republic
In October 1963, Nigeria altered its relationship with the United Kingdom by proclaiming itself a Federal Republic. Nnamdi Azikiwe, the last Governor General, became the country's first President. A fourth region (the midwest) was established that year. From the outset, Nigeria's ethnic, regional, and religious tensions were magnified by the significant disparities in economic and educational development between the south and the north. The AG was maneuvered out of control of the Western Region by the Federal Government, and a new, conservative, pro-government Yoruba party, the NNDP, took control of the region. Shortly afterward, the AG opposition leader, Chief Obafemi Awolowo, was imprisoned on treason charges that were later admitted to be without foundation.
The National Election of 1965 produced a major realignment of politics and a disputed result that set the country on the path to civil war. The dominant northern NPC went into a conservative alliance with the new Yoruba NNDP, leaving the Igbo NCNC to coalesce with the remnant of the AG (Action Group) in a progressive alliance. In the vote, widespread electoral fraud was alleged. There were major riots in the Yoruba West, where heartlands of the AG discovered that they had apparently elected pro-government NNDP representatives. A constitutional crisis threatened when President Azikiwe at first refused to accept the election result.
On January 15, 1966, a small group of army officers, mostly southeastern Igbos, overthrew the NPC-NNDP government and assassinated the federal prime minister and the premiers of the northern and western regions. The federal military government that assumed power under General Aguyi Ironsi, was unable to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable to all sections of the country. In fact, its efforts to abolish the federal structure raised tensions and led to another coup by largely northern officers, in July. This second coup established the leadership of Major General Yakubu Gowon. The subsequent massacre of thousands of Igbo in the north prompted hundreds of thousands of them to return to the southeast, where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment emerged.
In a move that gave greater autonomy to minority ethnic groups, the military divided the four regions into 12 states. However the Igbo rejected attempts at constitutional revisions and insisted on full autonomy for the east. Finally, on May 29, 1967, Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu, the military governor of the eastern region, who emerged as the leader of increasing Igbo secessionist sentiment, declared the independence of the eastern region as the "Republic of Biafra." The ensuing Nigerian Civil War was bitter and bloody, ending in the defeat of Biafra in 1970.
Following the civil war, reconciliation was rapid and effective, and the country turned to the task of economic development. Foreign exchange earnings and government revenues increased spectacularly with the oil price rises of 1973-74. On July 29, 1975, Gen. Murtala Mohammed and a group of fellow officers staged a bloodless coup, accusing the military government of Gen. Yakubu Gowon of delaying the promised return to civilian rule and becoming corrupt and ineffective. General Muhammed replaced thousands of civil servants and announced a timetable for the resumption of civilian rule by October 1, 1979. Mohammed also announced the government's intention to create more new states and to construct a new federal capital Abuja, in the center of the country.
General Muhammed was assassinated on February 13, 1976, in an abortive coup. His chief of staff, Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, became head of state. Obasanjo adhered meticulously to the schedule for return to civilian rule, moving to modernize and streamline the armed forces and seeking to use oil revenues to diversify and develop the country's economy. Seven new states were created in 1976, bringing the total to 19. The process of creating additional states continued until, in 1996, there were 36.
The Second Republic
A constituent assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution, which was published on September 21, 1978, when the ban on political activity, in effect since the advent of military rule, was lifted. Political parties were formed, and candidates were nominated for president and vice president, the two houses of the National Assembly, governorships, and state houses of assembly. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which a northerner, Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN), was elected president. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly.
In August 1983, Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred by violence and allegations of widespread vote rigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results.
On December 31, 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Maj. Gen. Muhammadu Buhari emerged as the leader of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), the country's new ruling body. He charged the civilian government with economic mismanagement, widespread corruption, election fraud, and a general lack of concern for the problems of Nigerians. He also pledged to restore prosperity to Nigeria and to return the government to civilian rule but proved unable to deal with Nigeria's severe economic problems. The Buhari government was peacefully overthrown by the SMC's third-ranking member, Army Chief of Staff Maj. Gen. Ibrahim Babangida, in August 1985.
Babangida cited the misuse of power, violations of human rights by key officers of the SMC, and the government's failure to deal with the country's deepening economic crisis as justifications for the takeover. During his first few days in office, President Babangida moved to restore freedom of the press and to release political detainees being held without charge. As part of a 15-month economic emergency, he announced stringent pay cuts for the military, police, and civil servants and proceeded to enact similar cuts for the private sector. Imports of rice, maize, and later wheat were banned. President Babangida demonstrated his intent to encourage public participation in government decisionmaking by opening a national debate on proposed economic reform and recovery measures. The public response convinced Babangida of intense opposition to an economic recovery package dependent on an International Monetary Fund (IMF) loan.
The Abortive Third Republic
President Babangida promised to return the country to civilian rule by 1990; this date was later extended until January 1993. In early 1989, a constituent assembly completed work on a constitution for the Third Republic. In the spring of 1989, political activity was again permitted. In October 1989 the government established two "grassroots" parties: the National Republican Convention (NRC), which was to be "a little to the right," and the Social Democratic (SDP), "a little to the left." Other parties were not allowed to register by the Babangida government.
In April 1990, mid-level officers attempted to overthrow the Babangida government. The coup failed, and 69 accused coup plotters were later executed after secret trials before military tribunals. The transition resumed after the failed coup. In December 1990 the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level. While turnout was low, there was no violence, and both parties demonstrated strength in all regions of the country, with the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils.
In December 1991, gubernatorial and state legislative elections were held throughout the country. Babangida decreed in December 1991 that previously banned politicians would be allowed to contest in primaries scheduled for August 1992. These were canceled due to fraud and subsequent primaries scheduled for September also were canceled. All announced candidates were disqualified from again standing for president once a new election format was selected. The presidential election was finally held on June 12, 1993, with the inauguration of the new president scheduled to take place August 27, 1993, the eighth anniversary of President Babangida's coming to power.
In the historic June 12, 1993 presidential elections, which most observers deemed to be Nigeria's fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman M.K.O. Abiola had won a decisive victory. However, on June 23, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a pretense, annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil. More than 100 persons were killed in riots before Babangida agreed to hand power to an "interim government" on August 27, 1993. Babangida then attempted to renege on his decision. Without popular and military support, he was forced to hand over to Ernest Shonekan, a prominent nonpartisan businessman. Shonekan was to rule until new elections, scheduled for February 1994. Although he had led Babangida's Transitional Council since early 1993, Shonekan was unable to reverse Nigeria's ever-growing economic problems or to defuse lingering political tension.
With the country sliding into chaos, Defense Minister Sani Abacha quickly assumed power and forced Shonekan's "resignation" on November 17, 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic political institutions and replaced elected governors with military officers. Abacha promised to return the government to civilian rule but refused to announce a timetable until his October 1, 1995 Independence Day address.
Following the annulment of the June 12 election, the United States and other nations imposed various sanctions on Nigeria, including restrictions on travel by government officials and their families and suspension of arms sales and military assistance. Additional sanctions were imposed as a result of Nigeria's failure to gain full certification for its counter-narcotics efforts. In addition, direct flights between Nigeria and the United States were suspended on August 11, 1993, when the Secretary of Transportation determined that Lagos' Murtala Mohammed International Airport did not meet the security standards established by the FAA. The FAA in December 1999 certified security at MMIA, opening the way for operation of direct flights between Lagos and U.S. airports.
Although Abacha's takeover was initially welcomed by many Nigerians, disenchantment grew rapidly. A number of opposition figures united to form a new organization, the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO), which campaigned for an immediate return to civilian rule. The government arrested NADECO members who attempted to reconvene the Senate and other disbanded democratic institutions. Most Nigerians boycotted the elections held from May 23-28, 1994, for delegates to the government-sponsored Constitutional Conference.
On June 11, 1994, using the groundwork laid by NADECO, Abiola declared himself president and went into hiding. He reemerged and was promptly arrested on June 23. With Abiola in prison and tempers rising, Abacha convened the Constitutional Conference June 27, but it almost immediately went into recess and did not reconvene until July 11, 1994.
On July 4, a petroleum workers union called a strike demanding that Abacha release Abiola and hand over power to him. Other unions then joined the strike, which brought economic life in around Lagos area and in much of the southwest to a standstill. After calling off a threatened general strike in July, the Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC) reconsidered a general strike in August, after the government imposed "conditions" on Abiola's release. On August 17, 1994, the government dismissed the leadership of the NLC and the petroleum unions, placed the unions under appointed administrators, and arrested Frank Kokori and other labor leaders. Although striking unions returned to work, the government arrested opponents, closed media houses, and moved strongly to curb dissent.
The government alleged in early 1995 that some 40 military officers and civilians were engaged in a coup plot. Security officers quickly rounded up the accused, including former Head of State Obasanjo and his erstwhile deputy, retired Gen. Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. After a secret tribunal, most of the accused were convicted, and several death sentences were handed down. The tribunal also charged, convicted, and sentenced prominent human rights activists, journalists, and others-- including relatives of the coup suspects--for their alleged "anti-regime" activities. In October, the government announced that the Provisional Ruling Council (PRC--see below: Abubakar's Transition to Civilian Rule) and Abacha had approved final sentences for those convicted of participation in the coup plot.
In late 1994 the government set up the Ogoni Civil Disturbances Special Tribunal to try prominent author and Ogoni activist Ken Saro-Wiwa and others for their alleged roles in the killings of four prominent Ogoni politicians in May 1994. Saro-Wiwa and 14 others pleaded not guilty to charges that they procured and counseled others to murder the politicians. On October 31, 1995, the tribunal sentenced Saro-Wiwa and eight others to death by hanging. In early November Abacha and the PRC confirmed the death sentence. Saro-Wiwa and his eight co-defendants were executed on November 10.
In an October 1, 1995 address to the nation, Gen. Sani Abacha announced the timetable for a 3-year transition to civilian rule. Only five of the political parties which applied for registration were approved by the regime. In local elections held in December 1997, turnout was under 10%. By the April 1998 state assembly and gubernatorial elections, all five of the approved parties had nominated Abacha as their presidential candidate in controversial party conventions. Public reaction to this development in the transition program was apathy and a near-complete boycott of the elections.
On December 21, 1997, the government announced the arrest of the country's second highest-ranking military officer, Chief of General Staff Lt. Gen. Oladipo Diya, 10 other officers, and eight civilians on charges of coup plotting. Subsequently, the government arrested a number of additional persons for roles in the purported coup plot and tried the accused before a closed-door military tribunal in April in which Diya and eight others were sentenced to death.
During the Abacha regime, the government continued to enforce its arbitrary authority through the federal security system--the military, the state security service, and the courts. Under Abacha, all branches of the security forces committed serious human rights abuses. After Abubakar's assumption of power and consolidation of support within the PRC, human rights abuses decreased. Other human rights problems included infringements on freedom of speech, press, assembly, association, and travel; violence and discrimination against women; and female genital mutilation.
Worker rights suffered as the government continued to interfere with organized labor by restricting the fundamental rights of association and the independence of the labor movement. After it came to power in June 1998, the Abubakar government took several important steps toward restoring worker rights and freedom of association for trade unions, which had deteriorated seriously between 1993 and June 1998 under the Abacha regime. The Abubakar government released two imprisoned leaders of the petroleum sector unions, Frank Kokori and Milton Dabibi; abolished two decrees that had removed elected leadership from the Nigeria Labour Congress and the oil workers unions; and allowed leadership elections in these bodies.
Abubakar's Transition to Civilian Rule
Abacha, widely expected to succeed himself as a civilian president on October 1, 1998, died suddenly of heart failure on June 8 of that year. He was replaced by Gen. Abdulsalami Abubakar, who had been third in command until the arrest of Diya. The PRC, under new head of state Abubakar, commuted the sentences of those accused in the alleged 1997 coup in July 1998. In March 1999, Diya and 54 others accused or convicted of participation in coups in 1990, 1995, and 1997 were released. Following the death of former head of state Abacha in June, Nigeria released almost all known civilian political detainees, including the Ogoni 19. M.K.O. Abiola, who still claimed his right to the presidency, also died in August of the year, just before he was to be released from prison.
During both the Abacha and Abubakar eras, Nigeria's main decisionmaking organ was the exclusively military Provisional Ruling Council (PRC) which governed by decree. The PRC oversaw the 32-member federal executive council composed of civilians and military officers. Pending the promulgation of the constitution written by the constitutional conference in 1995, the government observed some provisions of the 1979 and 1989 constitutions. Neither Abacha nor Abubakar lifted the decree suspending the 1979 constitution, and the 1989 constitution was not implemented. The judiciary's authority and independence was significantly impaired during the Abacha era by the military regime's arrogation of judicial power and prohibition of court review of its action. The court system continued to be hampered by corruption and lack of resources after Abacha's death. In an attempt to alleviate such problems, Abubakar's government implemented a civil service pay raise and other reforms.
In August 1998, the Abubakar government appointed the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to conduct elections for local government councils, state legislatures and governors, the national assembly, and president. NEC successfully held these elections on December 5, 1998, January 9, 1999, February 20, and February 27, 1999, respectively. For the local elections, a total of nine parties were granted provisional registration, with three fulfilling the requirements to contest the following elections. These parties were the People's Democratic Party (PDP), the All Peoples Party (APP), and the predominantly Yoruba Alliance for Democracy (AD). Former military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo, freed from prison by Abubakar, ran as a civilian candidate and won the presidential election. Irregularities marred the vote, and the defeated candidate, Chief Olu Falae, challenged the electoral results and Obasanjo's victory in court.
The PRC promulgated a new constitution based largely on the suspended 1979 constitution, before the May 29, 1999 inauguration of the new civilian president. The constitution includes provisions for a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly, consisting of a 360-member House of Representatives and a 109-member Senate. The executive branch and the office of president will retain strong federal powers. The legislature and judiciary, having suffered years of neglect, must be rebuilt as institutions.
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The Obasanjo Administration
The emergence of a democratic Nigeria in May 1999 ended 16 years of consecutive military rule. Olusegun Obasanjo became the steward of a country suffering economic stagnation and the deterioration of most of its democratic institutions. Obasanjo, a former general, was admired for his stand against the Abacha dictatorship, his record of returning the federal government to civilian rule in 1979, and his claim to represent all Nigerians regardless of religion.
The new President took over a country that faced many problems, including a dysfunctional bureaucracy, collapsed infrastructure, and a military that wanted a reward for returning quietly to the barracks. The President moved quickly and retired hundreds of military officers who held political positions, established a blue-ribbon panel to investigate human rights violations, ordered the release of scores of persons held without charge, and rescinded a number of questionable licenses and contracts let by the previous military regimes. The government also moved to recover millions of dollars in funds secreted in overseas accounts.
Most civil society leaders and most Nigerians see a marked improvement in human rights and democratic practice under Obasanjo. The press enjoys greater freedom than under previous governments. As Nigeria works out representational democracy, there have been conflicts between the Executive and Legislative branches over major appropriations and other proposed legislation. A sign of federalism has been the growing visibility of state governors and the inherent friction between Abuja and the various state capitols over resource allocation.
Problems of communal violence have confronted the Obasanjo government since its inception. In May 1999 violence erupted in Kaduna State over the succession of an Emir resulting in more than 100 deaths. In November 1999, the army destroyed the town of Odi, Bayelsa State and killed scores of civilians in retaliation for the murder of 12 policemen by a local gang. In Kaduna in February-May 2000 over 1,000 people died in rioting over the introduction of criminal Shar'ia in the State. Hundreds of ethnic Hausa were killed in reprisal attacks in southeastern Nigeria. In September 2001, over 2,000 people were killed in inter-religious rioting in Jos. In October 2001, hundreds were killed and thousands displaced in communal violence that spread across the Middle-Belt states of Benue, Taraba, and Nasarawa. On October 1, 2001, President Obasanjo announced the formation of a National Security Commission to address the issue of communal violence. Currently, ...............
On January 15, 1966, a small group of army officers, mostly southeastern Igbos, overthrew the NPC-NNDP government and assassinated the federal prime minister and the premiers of the northern and western regions. The federal military government that assumed power under General Aguyi Ironsi, was unable to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable to all sections of the country. In fact, its efforts to abolish the federal structure raised tensions and led to another coup by largely northern officers, in July. This second coup established the leadership of Major General Yakubu Gowon. The subsequent massacre of thousands of Igbo in the north prompted hundreds of thousands of them to return to the southeast, where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment emerged.
In a move that gave greater autonomy to minority ethnic groups, the military divided the four regions into 12 states. However the Igbo rejected attempts at constitutional revisions and insisted on full autonomy for the east. Finally, on May 29, 1967, Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu, the military governor of the eastern region, who emerged as the leader of increasing Igbo secessionist sentiment, declared the independence of the eastern region as the "Republic of Biafra." The ensuing Nigerian Civil War was bitter and bloody, ending in the defeat of Biafra in 1970.
Following the civil war, reconciliation was rapid and effective, and the country turned to the task of economic development. Foreign exchange earnings and government revenues increased spectacularly with the oil price rises of 1973-74. On July 29, 1975, Gen. Murtala Mohammed and a group of fellow officers staged a bloodless coup, accusing the military government of Gen. Yakubu Gowon of delaying the promised return to civilian rule and becoming corrupt and ineffective. General Muhammed replaced thousands of civil servants and announced a timetable for the resumption of civilian rule by October 1, 1979. Mohammed also announced the government's intention to create more new states and to construct a new federal capital Abuja, in the center of the country.
General Muhammed was assassinated on February 13, 1976, in an abortive coup. His chief of staff, Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, became head of state. Obasanjo adhered meticulously to the schedule for return to civilian rule, moving to modernize and streamline the armed forces and seeking to use oil revenues to diversify and develop the country's economy. Seven new states were created in 1976, bringing the total to 19. The process of creating additional states continued until, in 1996, there were 36.
The Second Republic
A constituent assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution, which was published on September 21, 1978, when the ban on political activity, in effect since the advent of military rule, was lifted. Political parties were formed, and candidates were nominated for president and vice president, the two houses of the National Assembly, governorships, and state houses of assembly. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which a northerner, Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN), was elected president. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly.
In August 1983, Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred by violence and allegations of widespread vote rigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results.
On December 31, 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Maj. Gen. Muhammadu Buhari emerged as the leader of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), the country's new ruling body. He charged the civilian government with economic mismanagement, widespread corruption, election fraud, and a general lack of concern for the problems of Nigerians. He also pledged to restore prosperity to Nigeria and to return the government to civilian rule but proved unable to deal with Nigeria's severe economic problems. The Buhari government was peacefully overthrown by the SMC's third-ranking member, Army Chief of Staff Maj. Gen. Ibrahim Babangida, in August 1985.
Babangida cited the misuse of power, violations of human rights by key officers of the SMC, and the government's failure to deal with the country's deepening economic crisis as justifications for the takeover. During his first few days in office, President Babangida moved to restore freedom of the press and to release political detainees being held without charge. As part of a 15-month economic emergency, he announced stringent pay cuts for the military, police, and civil servants and proceeded to enact similar cuts for the private sector. Imports of rice, maize, and later wheat were banned. President Babangida demonstrated his intent to encourage public participation in government decisionmaking by opening a national debate on proposed economic reform and recovery measures. The public response convinced Babangida of intense opposition to an economic recovery package dependent on an International Monetary Fund (IMF) loan.
The Abortive Third Republic
President Babangida promised to return the country to civilian rule by 1990; this date was later extended until January 1993. In early 1989, a constituent assembly completed work on a constitution for the Third Republic. In the spring of 1989, political activity was again permitted. In October 1989 the government established two "grassroots" parties: the National Republican Convention (NRC), which was to be "a little to the right," and the Social Democratic (SDP), "a little to the left." Other parties were not allowed to register by the Babangida government.
In April 1990, mid-level officers attempted to overthrow the Babangida government. The coup failed, and 69 accused coup plotters were later executed after secret trials before military tribunals. The transition resumed after the failed coup. In December 1990 the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level. While turnout was low, there was no violence, and both parties demonstrated strength in all regions of the country, with the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils.
In December 1991, gubernatorial and state legislative elections were held throughout the country. Babangida decreed in December 1991 that previously banned politicians would be allowed to contest in primaries scheduled for August 1992. These were canceled due to fraud and subsequent primaries scheduled for September also were canceled. All announced candidates were disqualified from again standing for president once a new election format was selected. The presidential election was finally held on June 12, 1993, with the inauguration of the new president scheduled to take place August 27, 1993, the eighth anniversary of President Babangida's coming to power.
In the historic June 12, 1993 presidential elections, which most observers deemed to be Nigeria's fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman M.K.O. Abiola had won a decisive victory. However, on June 23, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a pretense, annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil. More than 100 persons were killed in riots before Babangida agreed to hand power to an "interim government" on August 27, 1993. Babangida then attempted to renege on his decision. Without popular and military support, he was forced to hand over to Ernest Shonekan, a prominent nonpartisan businessman. Shonekan was to rule until new elections, scheduled for February 1994. Although he had led Babangida's Transitional Council since early 1993, Shonekan was unable to reverse Nigeria's ever-growing economic problems or to defuse lingering political tension.
With the country sliding into chaos, Defense Minister Sani Abacha quickly assumed power and forced Shonekan's "resignation" on November 17, 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic political institutions and replaced elected governors with military officers. Abacha promised to return the government to civilian rule but refused to announce a timetable until his October 1, 1995 Independence Day address.
Following the annulment of the June 12 election, the United States and other nations imposed various sanctions on Nigeria, including restrictions on travel by government officials and their families and suspension of arms sales and military assistance. Additional sanctions were imposed as a result of Nigeria's failure to gain full certification for its counter-narcotics efforts. In addition, direct flights between Nigeria and the United States were suspended on August 11, 1993, when the Secretary of Transportation determined that Lagos' Murtala Mohammed International Airport did not meet the security standards established by the FAA. The FAA in December 1999 certified security at MMIA, opening the way for operation of direct flights between Lagos and U.S. airports.
Although Abacha's takeover was initially welcomed by many Nigerians, disenchantment grew rapidly. A number of opposition figures united to form a new organization, the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO), which campaigned for an immediate return to civilian rule. The government arrested NADECO members who attempted to reconvene the Senate and other disbanded democratic institutions. Most Nigerians boycotted the elections held from May 23-28, 1994, for delegates to the government-sponsored Constitutional Conference.
On June 11, 1994, using the groundwork laid by NADECO, Abiola declared himself president and went into hiding. He reemerged and was promptly arrested on June 23. With Abiola in prison and tempers rising, Abacha convened the Constitutional Conference June 27, but it almost immediately went into recess and did not reconvene until July 11, 1994.
On July 4, a petroleum workers union called a strike demanding that Abacha release Abiola and hand over power to him. Other unions then joined the strike, which brought economic life in around Lagos area and in much of the southwest to a standstill. After calling off a threatened general strike in July, the Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC) reconsidered a general strike in August, after the government imposed "conditions" on Abiola's release. On August 17, 1994, the government dismissed the leadership of the NLC and the petroleum unions, placed the unions under appointed administrators, and arrested Frank Kokori and other labor leaders. Although striking unions returned to work, the government arrested opponents, closed media houses, and moved strongly to curb dissent.
The government alleged in early 1995 that some 40 military officers and civilians were engaged in a coup plot. Security officers quickly rounded up the accused, including former Head of State Obasanjo and his erstwhile deputy, retired Gen. Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. After a secret tribunal, most of the accused were convicted, and several death sentences were handed down. The tribunal also charged, convicted, and sentenced prominent human rights activists, journalists, and others-- including relatives of the coup suspects--for their alleged "anti-regime" activities. In October, the government announced that the Provisional Ruling Council (PRC--see below: Abubakar's Transition to Civilian Rule) and Abacha had approved final sentences for those convicted of participation in the coup plot.
In late 1994 the government set up the Ogoni Civil Disturbances Special Tribunal to try prominent author and Ogoni activist Ken Saro-Wiwa and others for their alleged roles in the killings of four prominent Ogoni politicians in May 1994. Saro-Wiwa and 14 others pleaded not guilty to charges that they procured and counseled others to murder the politicians. On October 31, 1995, the tribunal sentenced Saro-Wiwa and eight others to death by hanging. In early November Abacha and the PRC confirmed the death sentence. Saro-Wiwa and his eight co-defendants were executed on November 10.
In an October 1, 1995 address to the nation, Gen. Sani Abacha announced the timetable for a 3-year transition to civilian rule. Only five of the political parties which applied for registration were approved by the regime. In local elections held in December 1997, turnout was under 10%. By the April 1998 state assembly and gubernatorial elections, all five of the approved parties had nominated Abacha as their presidential candidate in controversial party conventions. Public reaction to this development in the transition program was apathy and a near-complete boycott of the elections.
On December 21, 1997, the government announced the arrest of the country's second highest-ranking military officer, Chief of General Staff Lt. Gen. Oladipo Diya, 10 other officers, and eight civilians on charges of coup plotting. Subsequently, the government arrested a number of additional persons for roles in the purported coup plot and tried the accused before a closed-door military tribunal in April in which Diya and eight others were sentenced to death.
During the Abacha regime, the government continued to enforce its arbitrary authority through the federal security system--the military, the state security service, and the courts. Under Abacha, all branches of the security forces committed serious human rights abuses. After Abubakar's assumption of power and consolidation of support within the PRC, human rights abuses decreased. Other human rights problems included infringements on freedom of speech, press, assembly, association, and travel; violence and discrimination against women; and female genital mutilation.
Worker rights suffered as the government continued to interfere with organized labor by restricting the fundamental rights of association and the independence of the labor movement. After it came to power in June 1998, the Abubakar government took several important steps toward restoring worker rights and freedom of association for trade unions, which had deteriorated seriously between 1993 and June 1998 under the Abacha regime. The Abubakar government released two imprisoned leaders of the petroleum sector unions, Frank Kokori and Milton Dabibi; abolished two decrees that had removed elected leadership from the Nigeria Labour Congress and the oil workers unions; and allowed leadership elections in these bodies.
Abubakar's Transition to Civilian Rule
Abacha, widely expected to succeed himself as a civilian president on October 1, 1998, died suddenly of heart failure on June 8 of that year. He was replaced by Gen. Abdulsalami Abubakar, who had been third in command until the arrest of Diya. The PRC, under new head of state Abubakar, commuted the sentences of those accused in the alleged 1997 coup in July 1998. In March 1999, Diya and 54 others accused or convicted of participation in coups in 1990, 1995, and 1997 were released. Following the death of former head of state Abacha in June, Nigeria released almost all known civilian political detainees, including the Ogoni 19. M.K.O. Abiola, who still claimed his right to the presidency, also died in August of the year, just before he was to be released from prison.
During both the Abacha and Abubakar eras, Nigeria's main decisionmaking organ was the exclusively military Provisional Ruling Council (PRC) which governed by decree. The PRC oversaw the 32-member federal executive council composed of civilians and military officers. Pending the promulgation of the constitution written by the constitutional conference in 1995, the government observed some provisions of the 1979 and 1989 constitutions. Neither Abacha nor Abubakar lifted the decree suspending the 1979 constitution, and the 1989 constitution was not implemented. The judiciary's authority and independence was significantly impaired during the Abacha era by the military regime's arrogation of judicial power and prohibition of court review of its action. The court system continued to be hampered by corruption and lack of resources after Abacha's death. In an attempt to alleviate such problems, Abubakar's government implemented a civil service pay raise and other reforms.
In August 1998, the Abubakar government appointed the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to conduct elections for local government councils, state legislatures and governors, the national assembly, and president. NEC successfully held these elections on December 5, 1998, January 9, 1999, February 20, and February 27, 1999, respectively. For the local elections, a total of nine parties were granted provisional registration, with three fulfilling the requirements to contest the following elections. These parties were the People's Democratic Party (PDP), the All Peoples Party (APP), and the predominantly Yoruba Alliance for Democracy (AD). Former military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo, freed from prison by Abubakar, ran as a civilian candidate and won the presidential election. Irregularities marred the vote, and the defeated candidate, Chief Olu Falae, challenged the electoral results and Obasanjo's victory in court.
The PRC promulgated a new constitution based largely on the suspended 1979 constitution, before the May 29, 1999 inauguration of the new civilian president. The constitution includes provisions for a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly, consisting of a 360-member House of Representatives and a 109-member Senate. The executive branch and the office of president will retain strong federal powers. The legislature and judiciary, having suffered years of neglect, must be rebuilt as institutions.
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The Obasanjo Administration
The emergence of a democratic Nigeria in May 1999 ended 16 years of consecutive military rule. Olusegun Obasanjo became the steward of a country suffering economic stagnation and the deterioration of most of its democratic institutions. Obasanjo, a former general, was admired for his stand against the Abacha dictatorship, his record of returning the federal government to civilian rule in 1979, and his claim to represent all Nigerians regardless of religion.
The new President took over a country that faced many problems, including a dysfunctional bureaucracy, collapsed infrastructure, and a military that wanted a reward for returning quietly to the barracks. The President moved quickly and retired hundreds of military officers who held political positions, established a blue-ribbon panel to investigate human rights violations, ordered the release of scores of persons held without charge, and rescinded a number of questionable licenses and contracts let by the previous military regimes. The government also moved to recover millions of dollars in funds secreted in overseas accounts.
Most civil society leaders and most Nigerians see a marked improvement in human rights and democratic practice under Obasanjo. The press enjoys greater freedom than under previous governments. As Nigeria works out representational democracy, there have been conflicts between the Executive and Legislative branches over major appropriations and other proposed legislation. A sign of federalism has been the growing visibility of state governors and the inherent friction between Abuja and the various state capitols over resource allocation.
Problems of communal violence have confronted the Obasanjo government since its inception. In May 1999 violence erupted in Kaduna State over the succession of an Emir resulting in more than 100 deaths. In November 1999, the army destroyed the town of Odi, Bayelsa State and killed scores of civilians in retaliation for the murder of 12 policemen by a local gang. In Kaduna in February-May 2000 over 1,000 people died in rioting over the introduction of criminal Shar'ia in the State. Hundreds of ethnic Hausa were killed in reprisal attacks in southeastern Nigeria. In September 2001, over 2,000 people were killed in inter-religious rioting in Jos. In October 2001, hundreds were killed and thousands displaced in communal violence that spread across the Middle-Belt states of Benue, Taraba, and Nasarawa. On October 1, 2001, President Obasanjo announced the formation of a National Security Commission to address the issue of communal violence. Currently, ...............
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